CLASS MAMMALIA

In general, the mammals have a suite of synapomorphic characters that define them as a monophyletic group. They have hair, and a single lower tooth-bearing jawbone (the dentary) that articulates with the squamosal. The teeth are replaced one time and show a differentiation between incisors, canines, and cheek teeth (premolars and molars). They are endothermic and capable of high levels of activity. Mammals have diversified to occupy almost all terrestrial and aquatic environments. One group, the bats, has achieved true flight.

Living mammals can be divided into the following major groups:

• MONOTREMATA
• MARSUPIALIA
  • AMERIDELPHIA The didelphids and caenolestoids (mainly in South America).
  • AUSTRALIDELPHIA The marsupials that occur primarily on Australia.
• PLACENTALIA
  • AFROTHERIA includes Macroscelidea, Tubulidentata, Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, Syrenia, Tenreca, Chrysochlorida.
  • XENARTHRA includes Xenarthra.
  • LAURASIATHERIA includes Cetartiodactyla (Cetacea and Artiodactyla), Perissodactyla, Carnivora, Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla.
  • EUARCHONTOGLIRES includes Rodentia, Lagomorpha, Primates, Dermoptera, Scandentia.

• SUBCLASS UNNAMED+
  • ORDER UNNAMED
    • FAMILY UNNAMED
    • Known from fragments of the braincase. Elements present indicate a mammalian organization of the skull, including the enclosure of the expanded brain by sheets of bone.
    • Upper Triassic
    • Adelobasileus
    • FAMILY SINOCONODONTIDAE
    • It had the same skull features as Adelobasilius. In addition, it had a fully-developed dentary-squamosal jaw joint. The middle ear was approaching the mammalian state. The cheek teeth did not occlude well and seem to have been replaced through the individual’s life. Such indeterminate growth of the teeth and skull was a primitive feature similar to that of the cynodonts.
    • Upper Triassic to lower Jurassic
    • Sinoconodon

• SUBCLASS MAMMALIAFORMES
  • INFRACLASS UNNAMED+
    • ORDER UNNAMED
    • It retained the extradentary bones in the lower jaw which served in hearing. The cheek teeth were differentiated between premolars and molars. It seemed to have developed the mammalian diphydont or single tooth replacement. All cheek teeth occlude. The lower jaw was narrower than the upper jaw, a condition common to most mammals. Ribs only in the thoracic region. The forelimbs were still somewhat sprawling. The hind legs, however, were erect. They seem to have had determinate growth (animals were of one size). Also, they seem to have been nocturnal (inferred from the architecture of the brain case which emphasized parts of the brain responsible for hearing and smell) and enthothermic (inferred from the small size and adaptations to rapid respiration). Also, likely they were insectivorous. Thus, they were like shrews.
      • FAMILY MORGANUCODONTIDAE
      • Morganucodon, Megazostrodon

• INFRACLASS HOLOTHERIA
  • SUPERORDER UNNAMED
    • ORDER UNNAMED+
    • Known only from teeth and jaw fragments, it had clear mammalian features of the cheek teeth, primarily 3 cusps- a large central cusp and two smaller lateral cusps.
    • Lower Jurassic
      • FAMILY KUEHNEOTHERIIDAE
      • Kuehneotherium
    • ORDER DOCODONTA+
    • Also known from fragmentary skeletal evidence, mainly jaws and teeth. These had the tricusp molars as well as differentiated incisors and canines.
    • Middle and upper Jurassic
    • Docodon
    • ORDER UNNAMED+
    • These animals had cheek teeth that interlock in a mortar and pestle grinding action called a tribosphenic-like molar (others have an anterior and lingual shelf of bone rather than a full cupule in the lower molar).
    • Middle Jurassic to lower Cretaceous
      • FAMILY AUSKTRIBOSPHENIDAE
      • Ausktribosphenos, Bishops, Asfaltomylos, Ambondro
    • ORDER MONOTREMATA
    • This order includes two extant animals, the platypus and echidna. Both animals reproduce by laying eggs, and have an interclavicle bone, both primitive characters. However, both extant monotreme groups are toothless as adults and difficult to compare to the early mammalian fossils. Fortunately, the platypus has teeth that do not erupt and are absorbed before the formation of the horny beak. Those teeth and the earlier ones show similarities with the ausktribosphenid teeth.
    • Lower Cretaceous to the present: Steropodon+
      • FAMILY ORNITHORHYNCHIDAE
      • Duck-Billed Platypus. These are aquatic mammals of streams and lakes of Australia. Its feet are webbed, and it has fur that repels water. The ears have no pinnae. The most distinctive aspect of the animal is its horny beak. Platypus adults have no teeth and feed on aquatic invertebrates by crushing and chewing them with their horny plates. Males have venomous spurs on their hind legs.
      • Platypus
      • FAMILY TACHYGLOSSIDAE
      • Echidnas and Spiny Anteaters. These are medium-sized mammals of Australia and New Guinea. They have a compact body that is covered with spines and a head with arelatively long, thin snout. They dig for ants and termites which they lap with a mucous-covered tongue. They crush the insects against their palate.
      • Echidna, Zaglossus.
    • ORDER TRICONODONTA+
    • Mainly known from isolated tricuspid molars, but some skeletal remains have been found, the most spectacular of which was Jeholodens, a burrowing anomal. It was and insectivore with plantigrade stance (feet flat on the ground). Both fore and hind limbs were sprawling.
    • Middle Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous
    • Triconodont, Jeholodens
    • ORDER MULTITUBERCULATA+
    • The largest group of Mesozoic mammals. The multituberculates were omnivorous and rodent-like. As in rodents, the incisors are long and separated from the cheek teeth by a gap. There were no canine teeth. Unlike rodents, the last premolar forms a large shearing surface. They had two small epipubic bones (also seen in the extant monotremes and other extinct Cretaceous groups). At least one appeared to have been arboreal with a prehensile tail and hind feet that can swivel backwards like a squirrel.
    • Upper Jurassic to upper Eocene.
    • Kamptobaatar, Nemegtbaatar, Ptilodus
    • ORDER SYMMETRODONTA+
    • The middle cusp of the tricusp molars was offset toward the tongue. Some had a very large coronoid process and extended angular process at the back angle of the jaw.
    • Lower Cretaceous
    • Spalacotherium, Zhangeotherium, Cusafontia
    • ORDER DELTATHEROIDA+
    • These animals stood at the inflexion point of the holotherians and the therians. They had cheek teeth (form and replacement pattern; see below) that shared characters with the marsupials. Also, the pattern of cranial vascularization was marsupial in form.
    • Upper Cretaceous
    • Deltatheridium

• INFRACLASS THERIA (a clade of marsupial + placental mammals)
  • SUPERORDER MARSUPIALIA
    • Marsupials replace only the premolars and molars. The anterior teeth are not replaced. Marsupials have 3 premolars and 4 molars.
    • AMERIDELPHIA
      • ORDER DIDELPHIMORPHIA
      • Opossums. Marsupials of Central and South America with one found through much of the US . They occur in aquatic to forest to dry scrub habitats and are typically omnivorous though some are carnivores. They have a full set of teeth (5 upper incisors and 4 lower incisors) on each side followed by a canine, 3 premolars, and 4 molars. Extant taxa are typically small to medium-sized animals. The first toe on the hindfoot is opposable and has a nail (all other toes have claws). Tail is long, naked, and prehensile.
      • Upper Cretaceous to the present
        • FAMILY DIDELPHIDAE
        • Alphadon+
        • Subfamily Caluromyinae (Wooly Opossums): Caluromys, Calurmysiops, Glironia.
        • Subfamily Didelphinae (American Opossums): Chironectes, Didelphis, Gracilinanus, Lestodelphys, Lutreolina, Marmosa, Marmosops, Metachirus, Micoureus, Monodelphis, Philander, Thylamys.
      • ORDER PAUCITUBERCULATA
      • Shrew Possums.
        • FAMILY CAENOLESTIDAE
        • Shrew Possums. These animals seem to be insectivores of western South America on the floor of cold and wet forests in the Andes. Shrew-like, they have small eyes and a tick coat. The upper lip has a distinctive flap of skin. Females do not have pouches. The lower jaw has a large incisor on each side that projects forward. The upper canines are large. The tail is long, but not prehensile. Paleothentes+ had elongate lower incisor and blade-like cheek teeth.
        • Upper Oligocene to present
        • Caenolestes, Lestoros, Rhyncholestes, Paleothentes+
        • FAMILY ARGYROLAGIDAE+
        • Argyrolagus was similar in form to a kangaroo rat; adapted to hopping and large cheek teeth.
        • Argyrolagus
        • FAMILY CAROLOAMEGHINIDAE+
        • Small insectivores.
        • Early Cenozoic
        • Roberthoffestetteria
        • ORDER SPARASSODONTA+
        • Carnivores
        • FAMILY BORHYAENIDAE
        • They were somewhat dog-like with short limbs.
        • Paleocene to Pliocene
        • Prothylacynus
        • FAMILY THYLACOSMILIDAE
        • These animals developed long saber-like upper canines that fit into a sheath formed by the lower jaw. The canine had indeterminate growth.
        • Upper Miocene to Pliocene
        • Thylacosmilus
      • AUSTRALIDELPHIA
      • ORDER MICROBIOTHERIA
      • Oligocene to present
        • FAMILY MICROBIOTHERIDAE
        • Monitos del Monte. They live in humid vegetation of the mountainous regions of souther Argentina and Chile. A small arboreal animal with a prehensile tail, which might serve to store fat; short, rounded ears. The animal has a well-developed marsupium. They superficially resemble the didelphids, with which they were classified. Though its dental formula is the same as the didelphids, the incisors and cheek teeth are quite unique (incisors spatulate and cheek teeth rounded).
        • Dromiciops, Microbiotherium+, Khasia+
      • ORDER DASYUROMORPHIA
      • Marsupial mice and rats, cat-like animals, and the Tasmanian wolf
        • FAMILY DASYURIDAE
        • Dasyurids. Arboreal and terrestrial; New Guinea and Australia. These animals have a long body with a pointed snout. They are plantigrade and are not syndactylous (no fused toes); the tail is not prehensile.
        • Antechinus, Dasycercus, Dasykaluta, Dasyurus, Murexia, Myoictis, Neophascogale, Ningaui, Parantechnicus, Phascogale, Phascolosorex, Planigale, Pseudantechnicus, Sarcophilus, Sminthopsis.
        • FAMILY MYRMECOBIIDAE
        • Numbats. Ant-eating marsupials of southern Australia. These animals do not have a pouch; and have dentition but the teeth appear to be reduced. They have a very long tongue.
        • Myrmecobius.
        • FAMILY THYLACINIDAE +
        • Tasmanian Wolf. Once common from New Guinea to Tasmania, now likely extinct. The marsupial has many dog-like features, including its posture and head.
        • Thylacinus.
      • ORDER PERAMELEMORPHIA
      • Bandicoots and bilbis.
      • Early Miocene to present
        • FAMILY PERAMELIDAE
        • Bandicoots and Bilbies. Ground-dwelling animals of drier habitas of Australia. They have flattened heads and long hind legs adapted for hopping and running (some adaptations also suggest digging – e.g. enlarged fibula).
        • Chaeropus, Isodon, Macrotis, Perameles.
        • FAMILY PERORYCTIDAE
        • Spiny Bandicoots and Mouse Bandicoots. Humid tropical forests of New Guinea and Australia . They have cylindrical heads, but otherwise resemble the peramelids.
        • Echymipera, Microperoryctes, Peroryctes, Rhynchomeles.
      • ORDER NOTORYCTEMORPHIA
      • Marsupial moles
        • FAMILY NOTORYCTIDAE
        • Marsupial Moles. Fossorial animals of the deserts of Australia. They are mole-like with reduced eyes, hevy digging fore feet, no external ears, and snouts covered by a shield. They swim through the sandy soil with their powerful forelegs. They feed on grubs. Females have a marsupium.
        • Notoryctes.
      • ORDER DIPROTODONTIA
      • Very diverse order including: Australian possums, gliding phalangers (including the marsupial lion), wallabies, kangaroos, koalas, wombats. Australia and New Guinea.
      • Lower Miocene to present
        • FAMILY ACROBATIDAE
        • Feathertail Gliders. Small arboreal animals of Australia and New Guinea. Although only one genus has a gliding membrane (it seems to have been lost in Distoechurus), both genera are united in that they feed on nectar, have stiff hairs on either side of the tail.
        • Acrobates, Distoechurus.
        • FAMILY BURRAMYIDAE
        • Pygmy Possums. Small arboreal animals of New Guinea and Australia . They have a mouse-like head with a short muzzle. The tail is long and prehensile, and they have an opposable halux on the hind feet.. Their pouches open anteriorly. They eat insects, nectat, and sometimes small reptiles.
        • Burramys, Cercartetus.
        • FAMILY PETAURIDAE
        • Gliders, Leadbeater’s Possum, and Striped Possum. Arboreal animals of New Guinea and Australia. All have a distinctive stripe that runs from the head to the base of the tail. The tail is prehensile and bushy. Many have a gliding membrane. They have opposable digits on the front feet and an opposable halux on the hind feet. They have protruding incisors. Their pouches open anteriorly.
        • Dactylopsila, Gymnobelidius, Petaurus.
        • FAMILY POTOROIDAE
        • Bettongs, Potoroos, and Rat Kangaroos. They are terrestrial mammals of open areas of Australia. They have large hind legs and feet and hop like rabbits, but can come up to a bipedal hop at high speeds. They have a tail that is somewhat prehensile. They are omnivores and seem to have specialized on underground fungi, tubers, and insects. Like the macropodids, their premolars are replaced by a single premolar with a shearing edge.
        • Aepyprymnus, Bettongia, Caloprymnus, Hypsiprymnodon, Potorous.
        • FAMILY MACROPODIDAE
        • Kangaroos and Wallabies. Animals are terrestrial or arboreal and tend to be herbivores (grazers and browsers) which occur over most of Australia and into New Guinea and surrounding islands. They are bipedal and plantigrade. The hind legs are powerful and allow for a hopping motion that can propel them at great speeds (to 50km/hr). The large tail serves as a balancing organ. Their lower incisors stick forward and close against a pad on the upper jaw (as in the bovids). Premolars move forward during replacement and become shearing blades.The pouch opens anteriorly.
        • Dendrolagus, Dorcopsis, Dorcopsulus, Lagochestes, Lagotrophus, Macropus, Onychogalea, Petrogale, Setonix, Thylogale, Wallabia.
        • FAMILY PSEUDOCHEIRIDAE
        • Ringtailed Possums. Small to medium-sized arboreal animals of New Guinea and Australia. Some are gliders. Most have prehensile tails. They have opposable digits on the front feet and an opposable halux on the hind feet. Mostly herbivores.
        • Hemibelideus, Petaluroides, Petropseudes, Pseudocheirus, Pseudochirops.
        • FAMILY TARSIPEDIDAE
        • Honey Possum. They are small arboreal animals of southwestern Australia. The have a long muzzle and a prehensile tail. The syndactylous toes on the hind feet have nails. Teeth are small and reduced. The cheekteeth are peg-like. They have bristle-tipped tongues with which they gather nectar.
        • Tarsipes.
        • FAMILY PHALANGERIDAE
        • Brushtail Possums, Cuscuses, and Phalangers. They are semi-arboreal animals of Australia, New Guinea and some surrounding islands. Although good climbers, they spend much time on the ground. They have long tails that generally are prehensile. Digits 1 and 2 are opposable to the other three. They are omnibvores that are nocturnal or crepuscular. Pouch opens anteriorly.
        • Ailurops, Phalanger, Spilocuscus, Strigocuscus, Trichosurus, Wyulda.
        • FAMILY VOMBATIDAE (PHASCOLOMYIDAE)
        • Wombats. Stocky terrestrial animals of Australia . They are badger-like, thick-bodied and tailess with short legs and strong digging claws. Incisors resemble those of rodents. Herbivores. The pouch opens posteriorly.
        • Lasiorhinus, Vombatus.
        • FAMILY PHASCOLARCTIDAE
        • Koalas. Small (~60cm high) teddy-bear arboreal animals of Eastern Australia. Digit 1 opposable. Toes 2 and 3 united on hind feet. Pouch opens backwards. They are unusual in that they form a placenta for a brief time. They are herbivores that specialize on eucalyptus.
        • Phascolarctos.

• SUPERORDER PLACENTALIA (EUTHERIA)
  • AFROTHERIA
  • ORDER TUBULIDENTATA
  • Aardvarks. These are terrestrial animals of Africa. They are large (pig-sized) with a tubular snout and a reduced dentition. They are adapted to eating termites with a long tongue, thick skin, and strong digging claws.
  • Miocene to present
    • FAMILY ORYOCTEROPIDAE
    • Orycteropus.
  • ORDER AFROSORISCIDA
    • SUBORDER TENRECOMORPHA
      • FAMILY TENRECIDAE
      • Tenrecs. These are insectivores of Madagascar and western Africa. They range in size from very small shrew-like animals to cat-sized animals. Some are spiny and resemble hedgehogs. They occur in habitats that range from aquatic to terrestrial, to fossorial, to arboreal. They have no jugals and have incomplete zygomatic arches.
      • Miocene to present.
      • Subfamily Geogalinae (Large-Eared Tenrecs): Geogale.
      • Subfamily Oryzorictinae (Aquatic Tenrecs, Rice Tenrecs, and Shrew Tenrecs): Limnogale, Microgale, Oryzoryctes.
      • Subfamily Tenrecinae (Tenrecs): Echinops, Hemicentetes, Setifer, Tenrecs.
      • Centetes, Ericulus.
      • FAMILY POTAMOGALIDAE (considered a subfamily of Tentrecidae by Wilson and Reeder 2005)
      • Otter Shrews. Aquatic animals of western and central Africa. They superficially resemble small otters with smooth fur. They have long muzzels; reduced eyes and ears, and laterally-flattened tails. These are sometimes placed within the Tenrecidae as a subfamily.
      • Micropotamogale, Potamogale.
    • SUBORDER CHRYSOCHLORIDEA
      • FAMILY CHRYSOCHLORIDAE
      • Golden moles. These are fossorial insectivores of south and east-central Africa They are adapted to a burrowing lifestyle in that they have large claws on the forefeet, a leathery pad over the nose, and small ears. They have a tabular bone and a single cloaca.
      • Miocene to present
      • Ambltsomus, Calcochloris, Chlorotalpa, Chrysochloris, Chrysopalax, Erimitalpa.
  • ORDER MACROSCELIDEA
  • Elephant Shrews. The elephant shrews have dentition that resemble rodents (long incisors) and a body that resembles shrews.
  • Middle Eocene to present
    • FAMILY MACROSCELIDIDAE
    • Jumping or Elephant Shrews. These terrestrial leaping mammals are from south and east-central Africa . They have long snouts, large eyes and ears. They are adapted for leaping.
    • Elephantulus, Macroscelides, Petrodromus, Rhynchodon.
    • PAENUNGULATA
  • ORDER HYRACOIDEA
    • FAMILY PROCAVIIDAE
    • Hyraxes.
    • Dendrohyrax, Heterohyrax, Procavia.
    • Eocene to present
    • Hyraxes, Dassies, and Conies. They are herbivores from sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. Hyraxes are rabbit sized animals with incisors like those of rodents.
  • ORDER SIRENIA
  • Sea cows. Early forms had short legs. Later the forelegs became paddle-like and the hindlegs became reduced to a few bones that do not emerge from the animal and acquired a whale-like tail. Animals of tropical and subtropical coastal waters where they eat water plants. Their dentition is reduced to a few molars. Also, they have a short elephant-like proboscis.
  • Eocene to present
  • Pezosiren+, Dusisiren+
    • FAMILY DUGONGIDAE
    • Dugongs and Sea Cows. They are fully marine animals of eastern Africa, southern Asia over to the Philippines and Australia. They have no vestigial nails on their flippers, and their flukes are notched. The rostrum of the skull is bent strongly downward. They have a pair of upper incisors on each side of the jaw. The second one is like a tusk in males. Canines and other incisors are vestigial. Cheek teeth are simple and columnar. They feed on vegetation in shallow coastal waters.
    • Dugong, Hydrodamalis+
    • FAMILY TRICHECHIDAE
    • Manatees. These are marine animals of the coastal regions of southeastern US, the West Indies, eastern South America, and western Africa. They have a small head with small eyes and flippers that have vestigial nails. The tail fin is not lobed. Incisors are absent in adults. Cheek teeth are numerous and migrate forward with age. They feed on aquatic plants in shallow coastal waters.
    • Trichechus.
  • ORDER PROBOSCIDEA
  • The developed a reduced jugal and orbit that opens to the maxilla. Enlarged second incisors; lower canines and first premolars absent. Modifications in the limbs to support great weight. Presumably, all had extensions of the nose that became the trunk in large forms that could not lower their heads to the ground.
    • SUBORDER UNNAMED+
      • FAMILY MOERITHERIIDAE
      • These were the earliest forms. They had a deep skull with second incisors of both upper and lower jaws enlarged and projecting forward. They were relatively small semi aquatic animals, much like small hippos.
      • Lower Eocene to Oligocene
      • Phosphatherium, Moeritherium
      • FAMILY DEINOTHERIIDAE
      • These animals had a pair of recurved lower tusks and no upper tusks.
      • Eocene to middle Pleistocene
      • Deinotherium
    • SUBORDER ELEPHANTIFORMES
    • These animals lost more of their premolars
      • FAMILY MAMMUTIDAE+
      • The mastodontids. A pair of elongate upper tusks; molars with rounded cusps.
      • Miocene to Pleistocene or Holocene
      • Mammut, Zygolophodon
      • FAMILY GOMPHOTHERIIDAE+
      • Upper and lower incisors elongate as tusks. Mastodon-type teeth with mounded cusps.
      • Miocene
      • Gomphotherium
      • FAMILY STEGODONTIDAE+
      • Molars with more incised (higher) cusps.
      • Pliocene
      • Stegodon
      • FAMILY ELEPHANTIDAE
      • Elephants and Mammoths. Large terrestrial animals of Africa and southern Asia. They have large heads, a long prehensile proboscis and incisors that emerge as tusks (Asian Elephant females do not have tusks). They have a limited number of molars that move forward to replace those that have worn out. The legs are large and columnar, and the ears are relatively large. Mammoths had ridged cusps on their molars which might be present as one or two at a time. Pleistocene (a dwarf mammoth survived on Wrangel Island until 4,000BCE) to present.
      • Elephas, Loxodonta, Mammuthus+.

• XENARTHRA
• These animals have a suite of unique characters including extra joints between some of the trunk and tail vertebrae. Also, the ischium and the ilium are fused to the first caudal vertebra. They have reduced teeth or no teeth at all.
  • ORDER CINGULATA
    • FAMILY DASYPODIDAE
    • Armadillos. They are terrestrial animals that range from the central US south through South America. They are covered by bony scutes with horny plates on the outside. The head and tail are similarly armored. The eyes are small. All have muscular forelimbs that terminate in strong digging claws. They have a very simple dentition that lacks canines.
    • Upper Paleocene to present
    • Subfamily Chlamyphorinae (Fairy Armidillos and Pichiciegos): Chlamyphorus.
    • Subfamily Dasypodinae (Armadillos): Cabassous, Chaetophractus, Dasypus, Euphractus, Priodontes, Tolypeutes, Zaedyus.
    • FAMILY GLYPTODONTIDAE+
    • The glyptodonts were similar to armadillos, but many grew to very large size and were much more heavily armored. They had continuously growing cheek teeth. Some had a spiked club at the end of the tail.
    • Pliocene to Pleistocene
    • Glyptodon
  • ORDER PILOSA
  • Sloths and South American Anteaters
  • Miocene to present
    • FAMILY MYRMECOPHAGIDAE
    • South American Anteaters. These are remarkable animals of Central and South America. They have very elongate snouts from which they can extend a very long tongue that is tipped with sticky saliva with which they gather ants and termites. Tails are long and prehensile. The front legs are strong with powerful claws that they use to tear into ant and termite nests. They have no teeth and an opening that is small and tubular.
    • Lower Miocene to the present.
    • Cyclopes, Myrmecophaga, Tamandua.
    • FAMILY BRADYPODIDAE
    • Three-Toed Sloths. They are arboreal animals that range from Central America to southern Brazil. They have hairs with grooves in which algae grow (adding to their cryptic coloration). The forelegs are much larger than the hind legs. Fore and hind legs terminate in three curved claws. They have no incisors or canines. They also have a reduced number of cheek teeth. They have 9 cervical vertebrae. They feed primarily on leaves.
    • Bradypus, Hapalops+
    • FAMILY MEGALONYCHIDAE
    • Two-Toed Sloths. These are arboreal animals that range from Central America to the Amazon basin. They have long shaggy fur on which algae grow and aid in cryptic coloration. The forelimbs are slightly longer than the hind limbs and terminate in two large, curved claws (the hind limbs have three claws). Incisors and canines are absent, but the cheek teeth are vary and are enlarged toward the front of the mouth (the forward most are canine-like). Their body temperature is quite variable (24-33C).
    • Miocene to the present.
    • Choloepus.
    • FAMILY MEGATHERIIDAE+
    • Giant Ground Sloths.
    • Megatherium
    • FAMILY MYLODONTIDAE?

• BOREOEUTHERIA
  • ORDER LEPTICTIDA+
  • Small shrew-like animals; long snouts and small sharp teeth (insectivores). They retain the jugal.
  • Paleocene to Oligocene
  • Leptictis, Kennalestes, Gypsonictops, Prodiacodon, Palaeictops, Myrmecoboides, Xenacodon, Leptictis, Diaphyodectes, Zeuctherium, Archaeoryctes, Leptictidium
  • ORDER ANAGALIDA+
  • Herbivorous. These animals had broad grinding molars. Rabbit-like in appearance. They retain a postorbital process.
  • Paleocene
  • Anagale, Zalambdalestes
  • ORDER APATEMYIDA+
  • Insectivorous. Their dentition seemed to be a mixture of rodent and shrew. The incisors were long and project forward.
  • Paleocene to Oligocene
  • Sinclairella, Jepsenella, Labidolemur, Unuchinia
  • ORDER TAENIODONTA
  • Herbivores. The forelimbs and forefeet were larger than the hind limbs and hind feet. Claws were narrow and recurved (for digging?).
  • Paleocene to Eocene
  • Stylinodon, Schochia, Psittacotherium, Onychodectes, Conoryctella, Huerfanodon, Conoryctes, Wortmania, Ectoganus
  • ORDER TILLIODONTIA
  • Herbivores. Some were bear-sized. Their teeth indicate that they fed on tough plants.
  • Paleocene to Eocene
  • Trogosus
  • ORDER PANTODONTA
  • Herbivores, relatively large (pig to hippo-sized) that resembled ground sloths. They had massive limbs and plantigrade feet; some may have been semi-erect.
  • Paleocene to Oligocene
  • Titanoides, Barylambda, Coryphodon, Hypercoryphodon, Pantolambda
  • ORDER PANTOLESTA
  • These resembled otters with flattened skulls. Their enlarged molars suggest that they may have fed on shellfish. Stomach contents also indicate that they fed on fish.
  • Paleocene to Oligocene
  • Coriphagus, Aphronorus, Pentacodon, Protentomodon, Bisonalveus, Buxolestes, Propalaeosinopa, Bessoecetor, Palaeosinopa, Paleotomus, Pantomimus, Pagonomus, Todralestes, Nosella?
  • ORDER DINOCERATA
  • Also known as the uintotheres, these animals were very large and built much like a rhinoceros. They had bony protuberances on the skull and large canines that may have been used for ritual combat.
  • Paleocene and lower Eocene
  • Uintatherium, Gobiatherium, Prodinoceras, Dinoceras, Bathyopsis, Eobasileus, Tetheopsis, Ditetradon, Jiaoluotherium

• LAURASIATHERIA
  • ORDER LIPOTYPHLA
  • This order includes most of the animals once regarded as Insectivora.
    • SUBORDER ERINACEOMORPHA
    • The hedgehogs. Early forms were dog-sized and covered with stiff hairs. Later forms evolved the spines characteristic of today’s hedgehog.
    • Eocene to present
      • FAMILY ADAPISORICIDAE+
      • Cretaceous.
      • FAMILY ERINACEIDAE
      • Hedgehogs and Rat Shrews. These are terrestrial mammals of Africa, Eurasia, over to Borneo. They are plantigradeand some have enlarged incisors. The hedgehogs have spines (rat shrews lack spines). They are good diggers and are omnivorous. Sme are good climbers and swimmers.
      • Subfamily Erinaceinae (Hedgehogs): Atelerix, Erinaceus, Hemiechinus, Mesechinus.
      • Subfamily Hylomyinae (Gymnures and Moonrats): Echinosorex, Hylomys, Podogymnura.
      • Deinogalerix+.
    • SUBORDER SORICOMORPHA
    • The shrews and moles. W-shaped pattern of ridges on the upper molars is diagnostic for the group.
    • Middle Paleocene to present
      • FAMILY SORICIDAE
      • Shrews. World-wide (except Australia and southern South America). Small insectivores with long muzzle. There are two major groups: red-toothed shrews (Europe, northern Asia and North America) and whilte-toothed shrews (Africa and southern Asia).
      • Subfamily Crocidura (White-Toothed Shrews): Congosorex, Crocidura, Diplomesodon, Feroculus, Myosorex, Paracrocidura, Ruwenzorisorex, Scutisorex, Solisorex, Suncus, Surdisorex, Sylvisorex.
      • Subfamily Soricinae (Red-Toothed Shrews): Anourosorex, Blarina, Blarinella, Chimarrogale, Cryptotis, Megasorex, Microsorex, Nectogale, Neomys, Notiosorex, Praesorex. Sorex, Soriculus.
      • Domnina+.
      • FAMILY TALPIDAE
      • Moles and Desmans. Fossorial and aquatic animals of North America and Eurasia . The fossorial taxa have evolved the typical large forelegs that terminate in powerful claws and no external ears. They have very small eyes. Moles are adapted to burrowing with large digging claws and weak hind legs; small eyes and ears. Desmans look like fat shrews (they are aquatic) with webbed feet.
      • Eocene to the present.
      • Subfamily Desmaninae (Desmans): Desmana, Galemys.
      • Subfamily Talpinae (Moles): Condylura, Euroscaptor, Mogera, Nesoscaptor, Neurotrichus, Parascalops, Parascaptor, Scalopus, Scapanulus, Scapanus, Scaptochirus, Scaptonyx, Talpa, Urotrichus.
      • Subfamily Uropsillinae (Chinese Shrew Moles): Uropsilus.
  • ORDER CHIROPTERA
  • The bats use fingers 2-5 as the frame for their wings. The shoulder girdle is adapted to large flight muscles on the scapula, ribs, and sternum. Hind feet can turn backwards.
  • Upper Paleocene to present
    • SUBORDER PTEROPODIFORMES(=YINPTEROCHIROPTERA)
      • SUPERFAMILY PTEROPODOIDEA (FORMERLY THE MEGACHIROPTERA)
      • Fruit bats. This superfamily has a single family.
        • FAMILY PTEROPODIDAE
        • Flying Foxes and Old World Fruit Bats. They are large bats of the tropics and subtropics of Africa, southern and central Asia, Australia, and Pacific islands. Some are quite large and have wingspans up to 1.7m. Most are much smaller. Pteropodids have a suite of unique characters that include: a second finger with a claw, elongated bony palate, no more than 4 upper and 4 lower incisors, relatively simple ears and small cochlea, tail absent or, if present, much reduced. They eat fruit or nectar.
        • Oligocene to the present.
        • Subfamily Macroglossinae (Blossom Bats, Dawn Bats, Long-Tongued Bats): Eonycteris, Macroglossus, Megaloglossus, Melonycteris, Notopteris, Syconycteris.
        • Subfamily Pteropodinae (Old World Friut Bats): Acerodon, Aethalops, Alionycteris, Balionycteris, Boneia, Casinycteris, Chironax, Cynopterus, Dobsonia, Dyacopterus, Eidolon, Epomophorus, Epomops, Haplonycertis, Hypsignathus, Latidens, Megaerops, Micropteropus, Myonycteris, Nanonycteris, Neopteryx, Nyctimene, Otopteropus, Paranyctimene, Penthetor, Plerotes, Ptenochirus, Pteralopex, Pteropus, Rousettus, Scotonycteris, Sphaerias, Styloctenium, Thoopterus.
      • SUPERFAMILY RHINOLOPHOIDEA
        • FAMILY RHINOPOMATIDAE
        • Mouse-Tailed Bats. Bats of deserts and semi-deserts northeastern Africa and southern Asia. They have a tail that is not enclosed or attached to a membrane. They have large ears that are attached at the base. They have no noseleaf. They are insectivores.
        • Rhinopoma.
        • FAMILY MEGADERMATIDAE
        • False Vampire Bats. India to the Philippines. They are relatively large bats with large ears that are united at their bases. Their nose leaves are large, and they have large canines. They feed on small vertebrates, birds, small bats, lizards, frogs, mice, and fish.
        • Cardioderma, Lavia, Macroderma, Megaderma.
        • FAMILY RHINOLOPHIDAE
        • Horseshoe Bats and Old-World Leaf-Nosed Bats. Bats of temperate and tropical areas of Eurasia, Africa, Australia, and many Pacific islands. They have complex noseleaves that form a horshoe beneath the nostrils, a large sternum and anterior portion of the pelvic girdle. They eat insects.
        • Subfamily Hipposiderinae (Leaf-Nosed bats): Anthops, Asellia, Anselliscus, Cloeotis, Coelops, Hipposideros, Paracoelops, Rhinonicteris, Triaenops.
        • Subfamily Rhinolophinae (Horshoe Bats): Rhinolophus.
        • FAMILY CRASEONYCTERIDAE
        • Bumblebee Bat and Hog-Nosed Bat. Tiny bats of the Kwai River basin in Thailand. They have no tail. They have a hog-like nose and large ears.
        • Craseonycteris.
    • SUBORDER VESPERTILIONIFORMES (=YANGOCHIROPTERA)
    • Insect-eating bats. Mainly small with relatively large and elaborate ears, many with nose-leaves, both of which function in echolocation. Index finger without a claw; tail usually long. Found from the tropics through temperate latitudes. Teeth broad with many cusps. Most are sociable; some hibernate.
      • SUPERFAMILY EMBALLONUROIDEA
        • FAMILY EMBALLONURIDAE
        • Sac-Winged Bats and Tomb Bats. Insectivores of tropical and subtropical areas world-wide. Most notable is the glandular sac on the leading edge of the wing. The tail is in a membranous sheath. They use echlolocation to catch prey and for communication.
        • Upper Eocene to the present.
        • Balantiopteryx, Centronycteris, Coelura, Cormura, Cyttarops, Diclidurus, Emballonura, Mosia, Peropteryx, Rhynchonycteris, Saccolaimus, Saccopteryx, Taphozous.
        • FAMILY NYCTERIDAE
        • Slit-Faced Bats. Bats of tropical forests and arid regions from Africa and southeastern Asia. Tey are characterized by having a peculiar slit that lies on top of the muzzle. They have no noseleaf. They have relatively large ears. Most eat arthropods, but some eat small vertebrates.
        • Nycteris.
      • SUPERFAMILY NOCTILIONOIDEA
        • FAMILY NOCTILIONIDAE
        • Bulldog Bat or Fish-Eating Bat. Central America. Bulldog face and large mouth; long ears and nose leaf. Unusually long legs, toes, and claws. They skim over water catching small fish and crustaceans.
        • Noctilio.
        • FAMILY MYSTACINIDAE
        • New Zealand Short-Tailed Bats. These bats are restricted to New Zealand. They can hide their wings within a leathery sheath. Thus, they can easily walk on the forest floor where they spend much of their time searching for food. The nose is pointed. They eat insects as well as fruit, nectar, and pollen.
        • Mystacina.
        • FAMILY MYZOPODIDAE
        • Old-World Sucker-Footed Bats. These bats are restricted to Madagascar. Their wrists are modified into suction devices that allow them to roost inside rolled leaves. They have relatively large ears and toes with only 2 phalanges.
        • Pleistocene to the present.
        • Myzopoda.
        • FAMILY PHYLLOSTOMIDAE
        • New World Leaf-Nosed Bats. Bats of the New World (Mexico to the Amazon basin). Mainly insectivores, but they also eat blood, fruit, birds, and small bats. Nose leaf simple, erect and pointed; some with grotesque folds over the face.
        • Miocene to the present.
        • Subfamily Brachyphyllinae (Antillian Fruit-Eating Bats): Brachyphylla.
        • Subfamily Carolliinae Little Bats and Short-Tailed Bats): Carollia, Rhynophylla.
        • Subfamily Desmodontinae (True Vampire Bats. Tropical South and Central America. The most derived of all bats. Its upper incisors are rodent-like but razor-sharp and can cut the skin of a living animal quickly and somewhat painlessly. They lap the fresh blood. Cheek teeth are reduced and vestigial. Very agile on the ground.): Desmodus, Diaemus, Diphylla.
        • Subfamily Glossophaginae (Long-Nosed Bats, Long-Tongued Bats, Tailless Bats): Anoura, Choeroniscus, Glossophaga, Hylonycteris, Leptonycteris, Lychnonycteris, Monophyllus, Musonycteris, Scleronycteris.
        • Subfamily Lonchophyllinae (Nectar Bats): Lionycteris, Lonchophylla, Platalina.
        • Subfamily Phyllonycterinae (Flower Bats): Erophylla, Phyllonycteris.
        • Subfamily Phyllostomatinae (Round-Eared Bats, Spear-Nosed Bats, Sword-Nosed Bats): Chrotopteris, Lonchorhina, Macrophyllum, Macrotus, Micronycteris, Mimon, Phylloderma, Phyllostomus, Tonatia, Trachops, Vampyrum.
        • Subfamily Stenodermatinae (Fruit-Eating Bats, Tent-Making bats, Yellow-Shouldered Bats): Ametrida, Ardops, Ariteus, Artibeus, Centurio, Chiroderma, Ectophylla, Mesophylla, Phyllops, Platyrrhinus, Pygoderma, Sphaeronycteris, Stenoderma, Sturnira, Uroderma, Vampyressa, Vampyrodes.
        • FAMILY FURIPTERIDAE
        • Smoky Bats and Thumbless Bats. Insectiverous bats of South America. Aside from being very small, they have very reduced thumbs. They have large ears that seem to cover the eyes.
        • Amorphochilus, Furipterus.
        • FAMILY MORMOOPIDAE
        • Ghost-Faced Bats, Moustached bats, and Naked-Backed Bats. They occur from Brazil to the southern US. They do not have a noseleaf, but they have elaborate folded skin for lips. They have moustache of stiff hairs. Insectivores and usually near water.
        • Pleistocene to the present.
        • Mormoops, Pteronotus.
        • FAMILY THRYOPTERIDAE
        • Disc-Winged Bats. Bats of the neotropics. They have suction structures on their wrists and ankles (like the myzopodids of Madagascar) which they use for attachement inside unrolling banana leaves. The ears are moderately large, and they have no noseleaf.
        • Thryoptera.
      • SUPERFAMILY VESPERTILLIONOIDEA
        • FAMILY NATALIDAE
        • Funnel-Eared Bats. They are small insect eating bats of lowland areas from northern Mexico to Brazil. These bats have relatively long legs and large ears. They do not have a noseleaf, but males do have a natalid organ on the face (the function of it is unknown).
        • Natalus.
        • FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE
        • Common Bats. Almost global; Eurasia, northern Africa, North America to northern South America.
        • Subfamily Kerivoulinae (Wooly Bats): Kerivoula.
        • Subfamily Miniopterinae (Bent-Winged Bats and Long-Fingered Bats): Miniopterus.
        • Subfamily Murininae (Hairy-Winged Bats and Tube-Nosed Bats): Harpiocephalus, Murina.
        • Subfamily Tomopeatinae (Blunt-Eared Bats): Tomopeas.
        • Subfamily Vespertillioninae (Evening Bats, Long-Eared Bats, Myotis Bats, Pipistrelles, Serotines): Antrozous, Barbastella, Chalinolobus, Eptesicus, Euderma, Eudiscopus, Glischropus, Hesperoptenus, Histiotus, Ia, Idionycteris, Laephotis, Lasionycteris, Lasiurus, Mimetillus, Myotis, Nyctalus, Nycticeius, Nyctophilus, Otonycteris, Pharotis, Philetor, Pipistrellus, Plecotus, Rhogeessa, Scotoecus, Scotomanes, Scotophilus, Tylonycteris, Vespertilio.
        • FAMILY MOLOSSIDAE
        • Free-Tailed Bats. They occur from Argentina northward to the central US and tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia . They are gregarious bats in buildings or caves. They have broad ears, united at the bases; and at least one-half of the tail free of the interfemoral membrane.
        • Chaerephon, Cheiromeles, Eumops, Molossops, Molossus, Mops, Mormopterus, Myopterus, Nyctinomops, Otomops, Promops, Tadarida.
• THE FERUNGULATA = THE CERTARTIODACTYLA
  • ORDER UNNAMED
    • FAMILY ZHELESTIDAE
    • Late Cretaceous
    • Alostera, Aspanlestes, Eozhelestes, Sheikhdzheilia, Sorlestes, Valentinella, Zhelestes
  • ORDER ARCTOCYONIA+
  • Herbivore that was sheep-sized, but it looked like a dog. Its molars, however, were broad and adapted to crushing rather than slicing flesh. Some were adapted to climbing with muscular limbs and, possibly, a prehensile tail.
  • Paleocene
  • Arctocyon
  • ORDER UNNAMED+
    • FAMILY MESONYCHIDAE
    • Carnivores. Early forms were dog-like. Later, they were quite large. This group likely was related to the whales.
    • Paleocene to upper Eocene
    • Mesonyx, Andrewsarchus
  • ORDER ARTIODACTYLA
  • These are the even-toed ungulates.
    • SUBORDER UNNAMED+
      • FAMILY DICHOBUNIDAE
      • The basal artiodactyls. These animals had multiple digits on the fore and hind feed (5 and 4, respectively), but they bore the weight on digits 3 and 4, each of which terminated in a small hoof. They had the diagnostic double pulley astragalus. They also showed artiodactyls features in the skull.
      • Lower Eocene to Oligocene
      • Diacodexis
    • SUBORDER SUIFORMES (BUNODONTIA)
    • Generally, omnivores. The pigs and hippos are characterized by having bulbous cusps on their molars. Also, they have powerful canines.
    • Upper Oligocene to the present
      • FAMILY ENTELODONTIDAE+
      • These pig-like animals had long skulls. Omnvivores.
      • Oligocene
      • Dinohyus
      • FAMILY SUIDAE
      • Pigs. Formerly distributed through Eurasia , south of 48 degrees; to the Philippines and Africa . Now, feral animasl occur throughout the world. Suids have stocky bodies; eyes are small and high on the skull; and ears are pointed. They have have long canines (continuously growing) used in feeding and fighting. Omnivores with a muscular, mobile snout. They have a 2-chambered stomach that does not ruminate.
      • Upper Oligocene to present: Perchoerus+
      • Subfamily Babyrousinae (Babyrousa): Babyrousa.
      • Subfamily Phachoerinae (Warthogs): Phacochoerus.
      • Subfamily Suinae (Hogs and Pigs): Hylochoerus, Potamochoerus, Sus
      • FAMILY TAYASSUIDAE
      • Peccaries. Omnivores of the southwestern US to Argentina . These pig-like animals resemble suids in many ways from the overall appearance to their mobile, disc-like snout. They have a scent gland on the rump and their feet are different. Their tusks also are directed downward. Their stomach has 3 chambers and is not ruminating.
      • Oligocene to present.
      • Catagonus, Pecari, Tayassu.
      • FAMILY ANTHRACOTHERIIDAE
      • These animals were sisters to the hippos. Small at first but large later (the size of a pygmy hippo).
      • Eocene to Pliocene
      • FAMILY HIPPOPOTAMIDAE
      • Hippopotamuses. These animals ranged through all of sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar . The large hippopotamus is a semi-aquatic animal while the pygmy hippo is a forest grazer. Their bodies are large and barrel-shaped with stubby legs. The stomach has three chambers and is not ruminating.
      • Middle Miocene to present
      • Hippopotamus, Hexaprotodon, Choeropsis+
    • SUBORDER SELENODONTIA
    • These animals have specialized cheek teeth with a selenodont pattern (pairs of crescent moon ridges). Upper incisors reduced or missing (elongate as sabers in some for sexual display). Compound stomach.
    • TYLOPODA
      • FAMILY MERYCOIDODONTIDAE
      • Oreodonts. These animals were pig-sized browsers that moved in large herds. They had 4 toes on each foot.
      • Merycoidodon, Bathygenys
      • FAMILY PROTOCERATIDAE
      • They were deer-like in form, but with shorter legs. They also evolved horns (as seen in the Ruminantia) above the eyes and on the nose.
      • Upper Eocene to Pliocene.
      • FAMILY CAMELIDAE
      • Camels, Llamas, Vicugna. Early camels had two toes with hooves. Later, they evolved pads. The center of origin was North America. The skull is elongate with a well-developed saggital crest. They have a 3-chambered ruminating stomach.
      • Upper Eocene to present.
      • Camelus, Lama, Vicugna, Poebrotherium+
      • RUMINANTIA
      • All animals in this clade ruminate or regurgitate their food. No upper incisors, but a horny pad against which the lower incisors bite.
      • FAMILY HYPERTRAGULIDAE+
      • Small rabbit-sized animal that had the ruminant horny pad. Their canines looked like incisors and first premolars looked like canines.
      • Upper Eocene to Oligocene.
      • Hypertragulus
      • FAMILY TRAGULIDAE
      • Chevrotains and Mouse Deer. Small hornless ruminants of southeastern Asia and Africa . They are mainly herbivores, but do eat invertebrates and small mammals. Their bodies are small and their muzzle is hairless. Their legs are slender and end in hooves. They do not have antlers or horns. They have a 3-chambered stomach and are ruminants.
      • Oligocene? to Miocene to the present.
      • Hyemoschus, Tragulus.
      • FAMILY ANTILOCAPRIDAE
      • Pronghorn Antelope. Horn is a bony nose prong.
      • Miocene to present.
      • Antilocapra.
      • FAMILY GIRAFFIDAE
      • Giraffes and Okapis. SubSaharan Africa . Permanent horns that are covered with skin. Have a 4-chambered ruminating stomach.
      • Giraffa, Okapia.
      • FAMILY CERVIDAE
      • Deer. Most species are browsers. Horn is a bony structure that is shed annually (antlers). They have no saggital crest and feet with 4 toes (only 2 touch the ground). 4-chambered stomach.
      • Subfamily Capreolinae (Brocket Deer, Caribou, Deer, Moose): Alces, Blastocerus, Capreolus, Hippocamelus, Mazama, Odocoileus, Ozotoceros, Pudu, Rangifer.
      • Subfamily Cervinae (Deer and Elk): Axis, Cervus, Dama, Elaphurus.
      • Subfamily Hydropotinae (Water Deer): Hydropotes.
      • Subfamily Muntiacinae (Muntjacs and Tufted Deer): Elaphodus, Muntiacus.
      • FAMILY MOSCHIDAE
      • Musk Deer. Small deer of central and northeastern Asia . Both sexes have antlers (a feature that sets them apart from the cervids) as well as a musk gland.
      • Moschus.
      • FAMILY BOVIDAE
      • Antelopes, Cattle, Gazelles, Sheep, Goats. Solitary or gregarious. Horn is a permanent bone core surrounded by a horny sheath. All have a 4 chambered stomach with which they digest cellulose.
      • Early Miocene to present
      • Subfamily Aepycerotinae (Impalas): Aepyceros.
      • Subfamily Alcelaphinae (Bonteboks, Hartebeest, Wildebeest): Alcephalus, Connochaetes, Damaliscus, Sigmoceros.
      • Subfamily Antilopinae (Antelopes, Dik-Diks, Gazelles): Ammodorcas, Antidorcas, Antilope, Dorcatragus, Gazella, Litocranius, Madoqua, Neotragus, Oreotragus, Ourebia, Pantholops, Procapra, Raphicerus, Saiga.
      • Subfamily Bovinae (Bison, Buffalos, Cattle): Bison, Bos, Bocephalus, Pseudoryx, Syncerus, Taurotragus, Tetracerus, Tragelaphus.
      • Subfamily Caprinae (Chamois, Goats, Serows, Sheep): Ammotragus, Budorcas, Capra, Hemitragus, Nemorhedus, Oreamnos, Ovibos, Ovis, Pseudois, Rupricapra.
      • Subfamily Cephalophinae (Duikers): Cephalophus, Sylvicapra.
      • Subfamily Hippotraginae (Addax, Roan Antelopes, Sable Anteolpes, Oryx): Addax, Hippotragus, Oryx.
      • Subfamily Peleinae (Rhebok): Pelea.
      • Subfamily Reduncinae (Reedbucks, Waterbucks): Kobus, Redunca.
  • ORDER CETACEA
    • SUBORDER ARCHAEOCETI
    • These animals ranged from semi aquatic to fully aquatic carnivores.
    • Eocene.
    • Pakicetus, Ambulocetus, Basiliosaurus
    • SUBORDER ODONTOCETI
    • The toothed whales. Marine; some in freshwater; global. Carnivores.
    • Miocene to present
      • FAMILY PHYSETERIDAE
      • Sperm Whales. Marine animals of all seas except the Arctic . They can be very large (up to 18m long). They have a huge head that is squared at the front end and contains a spermaceti organ (derived from the melon of most odontocetes). Many teeth in lower jaw only; single blow hole. They feed primarily on squids for which they dive up to 1,000m.
      • Kogia, Physeter.
      • FAMILY ZIPHIIDAE
      • Beaked Whales. Marine; North Atlantic , but spotty distribution globally. They grow up to 13m long, and many have a bulge (melon) on the forehead. Their flippers are quite small, and they have a small dorsal fin. No more than two pairs of functional teeth in the lower jaw. No teeth in the upper jaw. They feed on squid and fish.
      • Beardius, Hyperoodon, Mesoplodon, Tasmacetus, Ziphius.
      • FAMILY MONODONTIDAE
      • Narwhal and Beluga. Medium-sized whales of the Arctic . They have an expanded forehead (due to the melon) and have no dorsal fin. Male narwhals have a long, spiraled tusk. .
      • Monodon, Delphinapterus.
      • FAMILY DELPHINIDAE
      • Orcas, Dolphins, and Pilot Whales. Marine (and some freshwater systems) cetaceans with a global distribution. They range in size from 1.5-10m. They have rounded heads with pronounced dorsal fins, and most have teeth on both the upper an lower jaws. They eatt fish, squids, and marine mammals.
      • Cephalorhynchus, Delphinus, Feresa, Globicephala, Grampus, Lagenodelphis, Lagenorhynchus, Lissodephis, Orcaella, Orcinus, Peponocephala, Pseudorca, Sotalia, Sousa, Stenella, Steno, Tursiops.
      • FAMILY PHOCAENIDAE
      • Common Porpoise or Harbour Porpoise. They occur in marine, brackish, and freshwater environments of the Northern Hemisphere, the coast of South America , and southeastern Asia . They are relatively small (1.5-2.0m) and have no beak. Their flippers are pointed. Teeth are spade-shaped. They feed on many types of invertebrates and fish.
      • Australophocaena, Neophocaena, Phocaena, Phocoenoides.
      • FAMILY PLATANISTIDAE
      • River Dolphins. Large rivers of India , China , and South America . They are relatively small (1-3m). They have long beaks with numerous small teeth. They feed on fish and invertebrates.
      • Inia, Lipotes, Platanista, Pontoporia.
    • SUBORDER MYSTICETI
    • The baleen whales. Marine; global. Planktivores.
    • Oligocene(?) to present
      • FAMILY BALAENOPTERIDAE
      • Blue Whales, Fin Backs, and Humpbacks. They are found in most oceans, especially at high latitudes. They range in size from 8 to 28m long. The female blue whale is the largest animal alive (an to ever have lived). Throat pleats numerous. They feed mainly on krill.
      • Balaenoptera, Megaptera.
      • FAMILY BALAENIDAE
      • Right Whales and Bowhead Whales. They are whales of most temperate and polar seas. They can grow to 18m long, much of which is the huge head. They have no dorsal fin and the flippers are short and pointed. Their throats are smooth smooth. They feed mainly on zooplankton like copepods.
      • Balaena, Eubalaena.
      • FAMILY NEOBALAENIDAE
      • Pygmy Right Whales. They are whales of the cold temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere. They are small (6m) and have a dorsal fin.
      • Caperea (Neobalaena).
      • FAMILY ESCHRICHTIIDAE (RHACHIANECTIDAE)
      • Gray Whales. They Are found along the coasts of the North Pacific. They can grow to 14m long and have dorsal hump but no dorsal fin. They have broad flippers and have a ridge on the dorsal side of the flukes. Throat pleats few. They feed by straining bottom mud for crustaceans.
      • Eschrichtius.
  • ORDER PERISSODACTYLA
  • These animals have an odd number of toes.
    • SUBORDER HIPPOMORPHA
      • FAMILY EQUIDAE
      • Horses, Zebras, and Asses. They are animals of open habitats from eastern Africa to Mongolia. The horses showed several trends in their evolutionary history as the forests gave way to grasslands. They reduced the number of toes from 4 to 1. They became larger. The browsing molar was small while the grazing molar became large and able to withstand the abrasion of the silica in grass.
      • Eocene to present
      • Equus, Pliohippus+, Merychippus+, Parahippus+, Mesohippus+, Hyracotherium+
    • SUBORDER CERATOMORPHA
      • SUPERFAMILY SELINIDA+
        • FAMILY CHALICOTHERIIDAE
        • The chalicotheres had long forelimbs and short hindlimbs. Likely they could walk bipedally or knuckle walk. Thus, their body looked like a gorilla, but the head looked like a horse.
        • Miocene to Pleistocene
        • Chalicotherium, Ancylotherium, Anisodon, Borissiakia, Chemositia, Kalimantsia, Limognitherium, Lophiaspis, Moropus, Nestoritherium, Tylocephalonyx
      • SUPERFAMILY BRONTOTHERIOIDEA+
        • FAMILY BRONTOTHERIIDAE
        • These are the brontotheres or titanotheres. They were large, stocky animals with a catapult-shaped horn on the nose.
        • Eocene
        • Pakotitanops, Mulkrajanops, Eotitanops, Palaeosyops, Bunobrontops, Mesatirhinus, Dolichorhinus, Sphenocoelus, Desmatotitan, Fossendorhinus, Metarhinus, Microtitan, Sthenodectes, Telmatherium, Metatelmatherium, Epimanteoceras, Hyotitan, Nanotitanops, Pygmaetitan, Acrotitan, Qufutitan, Protitan, Protitanotherium, Rhinotitan, Diplacodon, Pachytitan, Brachydiastematherium, Sivatitanops, Gnathotitan, Aktautitan, Metatitan, Nasamplus, Protembolotherium, Embolotherium, Parabrontops, Protitanops, Notiotitanops, Dianotitan, Duchesneodus, Megacerops, Menodus, Brontotherium, Brontops, Menops, Ateleodon, Oreinotherium
        • FAMILY ANCHILOPHIDAE
        • Anchilophus
      • SUPERFAMILY TAPIROIDEA
        • FAMILY HELALETIDAE+
        • FAMILY ISECTOLOPHIDAE+
        • FAMILY LOPHOIDONTIDAE+
        • FAMILY DEPERETELLIDAE+
        • FAMILY LOPHIALETIDAE+
        • FAMILY TAPIRIDAE
        • Tapirs. They are terrestrial animals of southern Mexico to Venesuala. A fourth species occurs in Burma , Thailand south to Sumatra . The tapirs radiated from animals that looked like Eocene horses. Then, the surviving lineage developed a short proboscis.
        • Eocene to the present
        • Tapirus, Heptodon+
    • SUPERFAMILY RHINOCEROTOIDEA
      • FAMILY HYRACODONTIDAE+
      • FAMILY RHINOCEROTIDAE
      • Rhinoceroses. Living animals are restricted to open areas of south-central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa . They are large animals with thick skin and one or two hornes made of compressed hairs. Rhinos evolved from animals that resembled Eocene horses. By the Oligocene, the rhino line had produced the largest terrestrial mammal that ever evolved, Paraceratherium+ (syn: Indricotherium; Baluchitherium). Horned rhinoceroses radiated in the Miocene.
      • Eocene to present
      • Rhinoceros, Ceratotherium, Diceros, Paraceratherium+, Coelodonta+
• BULBODENTATA
  • ORDER UNNAMED+
    • FAMILY HYOPSODONTIDAE
    • Herbivores. Small and short-limbed; maybe semi-arboreal.
    • Paleocene
    • Hyopsodus
  • ORDER LITOPTERNA+
    • FAMILY PROTOLITOPTERNIDAE
    • FAMILY MACRAUCHENIIDAE
    • Macrauchenia.
    • FAMILY NOTONYCHOPIDAE
    • FAMILY ADIANTHIDAE
    • FAMILY PROTOTHERIIDAE
  • ORDER NOTOUNGULATA+
    • FAMILY HENRICOSBORNIIDAE
    • FAMILY NOTOSTYLOPIDAE
    • TOXODONTIA
    • FAMILY TOXODONTIDAE
    • FAMILY NOTOHIPPIDAE
    • FAMILY LEONTINIIDAE
    • FAMILY HOMALODONTHERIIDAE
    • FAMILY ISOTEMNIDAE
    • TYPOTHERIA
    • FAMILY OLDFIELDTHOMASIIDAE
    • FAMILY ARCHAEOPITHECIDAE
    • FAMILY INTERATHERIIDAE
    • FAMILY MESOTHERIIDAE
    • FAMILY ARCHAEOHYRACIDAE
    • FAMILY HEGETOTHERIIDAE
  • ORDER ASTRAPOTHERIA+
    • FAMILY TRIGONOSTYLOPIDAE
    • Albertogaudryia, Shecenia, Teragonostylops, Trigonostylops.
    • FAMILY ASTRAPOTHERIIDAE
    • Astrapontus, Astrapothericulus, Astrapotherium, Parastrapotherium, Scaglia, Synastrapotherium, Xenastrapotherium.
  • ORDER PYROTHERIA+
    • FAMILY PYROTHERIIDAE
    • Pyrotherium, Propyrotherium, Carlozittelia, Griphodon.
  • ORDER CREODONTA+
  • Carnivores that ranged in size from cat to bear. They had low skulls and shearing cheek teeth. This may be a paraphyletic group.
  • Paleocene to upper Miocene
  • Unassigned genera: Prionogale, Sinopa.
    • FAMILY? KOHOLIIDAE
    • Koholia.
    • FAMILY HYENODONTIDAE
    • Parvagula, Tylodon.
    • Subfamily Limnocyoninae: Hyenodon, Prolimnocyon, Thinocyon, Limnocyon, Oxaenodon, Prolaena, Thereuthium, Machaeroides, Apataelurus.
    • FAMILY OXYAENIDAE
    • Subfamily Oxyaeninae: Oxyaena, Dipsalidictides, Patriofelis, Sarkastodon.
    • Subfamily Tytthaeninae: Tytthaena.
    • Subfamily Ambloctononae: Dipsalodon, Ambloctonus, Palaeonictis, Dormaalodon.
  • ORDER CARNIVORA
  • These animals have a pair of carnassial teeth; upper premolar 4 and lower molar 1 are enlarged for shearing. Broad molars are seen in the bone-crushing taxa. Generally, the canines are long and adapted for piercing or puncturing. The incisors have a variety of functions including grasping and tearing and grooming.
    • SUBORDER UNNAMED
      • FAMILY MIACIDAE+
      • These were semi arboreal cat-like predators. They did not have an ossified auditory bula.
      • Paleocene and Eocene
      • Vulpavus
    • SUBORDER FELIFORMIA
    • The feliforms can be recognized by an ossified auditory bula that was ectotympanic (formed from bones that surrounded the eardrum). Also, they have an intrabullar septum.
      • FAMILY NIMRAVIDAE+
      • These animals were cat-like and had saber teeth.
      • Eocene to Miocene
      • FAMILY VIVERRIDAE
      • Civets. Nocturnal hunters of southern Europe , Africa , and Asia . These are carnivores with long bodies and short legs. The head is long and flattened.
      • Eocene to present
      • Subfamily Hemigalinae (Civets): Chrotogale, Cynogale, Diplogale, Hemigalus
      • Subfamily Paraxoxurinae (Binturong and Palm Civets): Arctictis, Arctogalidia, Macrogalidia, Paguma, Paraxoxurus.
      • Subfamily Prionodontinae (Linsangs): Prionodon.
      • Subfamily Viverrinae (Civets, Genets, Linsangs): Civettictis, Genetta, Osbornictis, Poiana, Viverra, Viverricula.
      • FAMILY HERPESTIDAE
      • Mongooses. Mainly Africa with one genus that ranges into Asia and southern Europe. Skull is long and flattened; claws are not retractile; small rounded ears; anal glands; and a baculum.
      • Upper Oligocene to present
      • Atilax, Bdeogale, Crossarchus, Cynictis, Dologale, Galerella, Helogale, Herpestes, Ichneumia, Liberilctis, Mungos, Paracynictis, Rhynchogale, Suricata.
      • FAMILY HYAENIDAE
      • Aardwolves and Hyenas. Scavengers of Africa , southeast Asia, and India . Bushy tail, rounded ears, and usually with spots or stripes, some with a mane; anal pouches. Females have an enlarged clitoris and scrotal pouches that make them appear to be male.
      • Miocene to present
      • Subfamily Hyeninae (Hyenas): Crocuta, Hyaena, Parahyaena.
      • Subfamily Protelinae (Aardwolf): Proteles.
      • FAMILY FELIDAE
      • Cats. Global distribution except Australia and Antarctica. Cats have a short rostrum; no baculum; and retractable claws.
      • Lower Oligocene to present
      • Subfamily Felinae (Small Cats): Acinonyx, Caracal, Catopuma, Felis, Leopardus, Leptailurus, Lynx, Prionailurus, Profelis, Puma.
      • Subfamily Pantherinae (Leopards, Lions, Tigers): Neofelis, Panthera, Pardofelis, Uncia.
    • SUBORDER CANIFORMIA
    • The caniforms have an ossified auditory bula that is entotympanic (formed by new bone elements). They have no intrabullar septa.
      • FAMILY CANIDAE
      • Coyotes, Dogs, Foxes, Jackals, Wolves. Occur on all continents except Antarctica . Medium-sized carnivores (but also relatively omnivorous). Some are social and form packs. Sense of smell well developed.
      • Oligocene to present
      • Atelocynus, Canis, Cerdocyon, Chrysocyon, Cuon, Dusicyon, Lycaon, Nyctereutes, Otocyon, Pseudalopex, Speothos, Urocyon, Vulpes.
      • FAMILY URSIDAE
      • Bears. Distributed to all continents except Antarctica . Bears are large mammals with small rounded ears, small eyes, and short tails. They are covered with long rough fur that has a single color.
      • Eocene to present
      • Ailuropoda, Helarctos, Melursus, Tremarctos, Ursus.
      • FAMILY AMPHICYONIDAE+
      • Dog-like animals (medium to very large).
      • Upper Eocene to upper Miocene
      • FAMILY MUSTELIDAE
      • Weasels. Distributed to all continents except Australia , and Antarctica . They do not occur on Madagascar and Pacific oceanic islands. Taxa within this family are aquatic, to terrestrial. Some burrow, climb trees, etc. They have well-developed anal scent glands; no second upper molar.
      • Lower Miocene to present
      • Subfamily Lutrinae (Otters): Amblonyx, Aonyx, Enhydra, Lontra, Lutra, Lutrogale, Pteronura.
      • Subfamily Mustelinae (Martens, Weasels, Wolverines): Arctonyx, Eira, Galictis, Gulo, Ictonyx, Lyncodon, Martes, Meles, Mellivora, Melogale, Mustela, Poecilogale, Taxidea, Vormela.
      • FAMILY PROCYONIDAE
      • Raccoons. These omnivores are restricted to the New World from Canada to Argentina in habitats that range from desert to forest and are somewhat arboreal. They have short broad faces; often with ringed tails; they have a plantigrade walk
      • Upper Oligocene to present
      • Subfamily Potosinae (Kinkajous and Olingos): Bassaricyon, Potos.
      • Subfamily Procyoninae (Coatis, Raccoons): Bassariscus, Nasua, Nasuella, Procyon.
      • PENNIPEDIA The clade of aquatic carnivores
      • FAMILY ENALIARCTIDAE+
      • These had distinctive bear-like carnassial teeth. They had flippers.
      • Upper Oligocene to lower Miocene.
      • Enaliarctos
      • FAMILY OTARIIDAE
      • Fur seals and Sealions. Distribution discontinuous along Pacific coasts of the Americas; coasts of central and northern Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the Atlantic coast of southern South America. Males are much larger than females. They are elongate and slender with fur and external ears. The foreflippers are very long, naked and have claws. The hind flippers can be rotated under the animal when on land; a small tail and a baculum.
      • Lower Miocene to present
      • Arctocephalus, Callorhinus, Eumetropias, Neophoca, Otaria, Phocarctos, Zalophus, Thalassoleon+.
      • FAMILY ODOBENIDAE
      • Walruses. Distributed along Arctic and subarctic coasts. They have very long canines (tusks); a broad muzzle with thick vibrissae. The skin is thick, only sparsely covered with hair, and with underlying layers of blubber. The foreflippers are long; Thind flippers can be rotated to support them when on land.
      • Lower Miocene to present
      • Odobenus.
      • FAMILY DESMATOPHOCIDAE+
      • These animals were seal-like with broad flippers, reduced tails, and large eyes.
      • Miocene
      • Allodesmus
      • FAMILY PHOCIDAE
      • Seals. These aquatic animals are found along coastlines above 30 degrees north and south of 50 degrees south. They exhibit sexual dimorphism with the males being almost twice as large as females. Theur bodies are streamlined with foreflippers bearing well-developed claws. The hindflippers cannot be rotated under the body. They have no external ear and stiff hai that lacks a dense underfur (the young often have dense white fur). They have a thick layer of blubber.
      • Lower Miocene to present
      • Cystophora, Erignathus, Halichoerus, Histriophoca, Hydrurga, Leptonychotes, Lobodon, Monachus, Ommatophoca, Pagophilus, Phoca, Pusa.
  • ORDER PHOLIDOTA
  • Pangolins (group of anteaters called scaly anteaters), sister group to the carnivores. These animals are toothless and covered with armored overlapping scales.
  • Eocene to present
    • FAMILY MANIDAE
    • Manis, Eomanis+

• EUARCHONOTAGLIRES
  • ORDER PLESIADAPIFORMES +
  • A group of 6-7 basal families. Squirrel-like, arboreal, but with eyes on the side, rather than the front of the skull. Long snout with rodent-like incisors. They have spaces between the molars. They are sisters to the primates.
  • Paleocene to Eocene
  • Purgatorius, Plesiadapis, Carpolestes
    • FAMILY PLESIADAPIDAE
    • Pandemonium, Pronothodectes, Nannodectes, Plesiadapis, Chiromyoides, Platychoerops.
    • FAMILY CARPOLESTIDAE
    • Chronolestes, Elphidotarsius, Carpodaptes, Carpolestes, Carpocristes.
    • FAMILY SAXONELLIDAE
    • Saxonella.
    • FAMILY PAROMOMYIDAE
    • Paromomys, Ignacius, Phenacolemur, Elwynella, Simpsonlemus, Dillerlemur, Pulverflumen, Arcius.
    • FAMILY MICROMOMIDAE
    • Micromomys, Tinimomys, Chalicomomys, Myrmekomomys.
    • FAMILY PALAECHTHONIDAE
    • Palaechthon, Plesiolestes, Talpohenach, Torrejonia, Palenochtha, Premnoides.
    • FAMILY MICROSYOPIDAE
    • Navajovius, Berruvius, Niptomomys, Uintasorex, Avenius, Microsyops, Arctodontomys, Craseops, Megadelphus.
    • FAMILY PICRODONTIDAE
    • Picrodus, Zanycteris, Draconodus.
    • FAMILY PICROMOMYIDAE
    • Picromomys, Alveojunctus.
  • ORDER PRIMATES
  • The primates are characterized by having 3 major sets of adaptations:
  • – Agility in the trees
  • – Large brain and acute diurnal vision
  • – Parental care
    • SUBORDER STREPSIRRHINI
      • INFRAORDER ADAPIFORMES+
      • These animals were lemur-like and among the most abundant of the early primates. They had a relatively long snout and small orbits. Teeth indicate herbivory.
      • Lower Eocene to upper Miocene.
      • Incertae Sedis: Omanodon.
        • FAMILY NOTHACTIDAE
        • Subfamily Cercamoniinae: Anchomomys, Buxella, Donrussella, Europolemur, Mahgarita, Periconodon, Pronycticebus.
        • Subfamily Nothactinae: Cantius, Notharctus, Smilodectes.
        • FAMILY SIVALADAPIDAE
        • Sivaladapis.
        • FAMILY ADAPIDAE
        • Adapis, Adapoides, Leptadapis, Godinotia.
      • INFRAORDER LEMURIFORMES
      • All members of this group have a tooth comb made of forward pointing incisors and canines (feeding and grooming) and a toilet claw on the second toe.
        • FAMILY LEMURIDAE
        • Lemurs. Living animals confined to Madagascar; Face fox-like. Nocturnal, aboreal; omnivorous. Lower incisors project forward and form a comb.
        • Oligocene to present
        • Eulemur, Hapalemur, Lemur, Microcebus, Varecia.
        • Megalalapsis+, Bugtilemur+
        • FAMILY INDRIIDAE
        • Wooly lemur, indri and sifaka. Madagascar. Nocturnal or diurnal. Generally with long hind legs. Diurnal species live on the ground and move about in troops.
        • Indris, Avahis, Propithecus.
        • FAMILY DAUBENTONIIDAE
        • Aye-aye. Eastern Madagascar. Insectivore and nocturnal. Probes fir insects in wood with elongate fingers.
        • Daubentonia.
        • FAMILY LORISIDAE
        • Lorises and bushbabies. Southeast Asia and Africa (south of the Sahara). Nocturnal arboreal animals; omnivores.
        • Middle Eocene to present.
        • Nycticicebus, Loris, Perodicticus, Arctocebus, Galago.
    • SUBORDER HAPLORHINI
      • INFRAORDER TARSIIFORMES
        • FAMILY OMOMYTIDAE+
        • Small tree dwellers and among the oldest known primates. They are very similar to the tarsiids.
        • Eocene (Paleocene if Altiatlasius is included)
        • Altiatlasius, Tetonius
        • FAMILY TARSIIDAE
        • Tarsiids. Southeastern Asia . They have relatively large heads, small snouts, and large orbits. They mainly eat insects.
        • Lower Eocene to present
        • Tarsius, Shoshonius+
      • INFRAORDER SIMIIFORMES
      • PLATYRRHINI The New World Monkeys; ‘the broad noses’ (AFTER WILSON AND REEDER 2006)
      • New World Monkeys (Night Monkeys, Titis, Sakis, Uakaris, Howling Monkeys, Capuchins, Squirrel Monkeys, Spider Monkeys, Wooly Monkeys). Tropics and subtropics of North and South America. They usually live in troops and are omnivorous. Generally, arboreal they have prehensile tails and nails. They have 36 teeth, 4 more teeth than other primates.
        • FAMILY CEBIDAE
        • Subfamily Callitrichinae (Marmosets and Tamarins): Central and South America. They are diurnal and feed on insects and fruit. Tail never prehensile; 32 teeth; most digits bear claws. Callimico, Cebuella, Leontocebus, Midas.
        • Subfamily Cebinae (Capuchin Monkeys): Cebus
        • Subfamily Saimiriinae (Squirrel Monkeys): Saimiri
        • FAMILY AOTIDAE
        • Night Monkeys
        • Aotus
        • FAMILY PITHECIIDAE
        • Titi Monkeys, Sakis, and Uakaris
        • Subfamily Callicebinae (Titi Monkeys): Callicebus.
        • Subfamily Pitheciinae (Sakis and Uakaris): Cacajao, Chiropotes, Pithecia.
        • FAMILY ATELIDAE
        • Howler Monkeys and Spider Monkeys
        • Subfamily Alouattinae (Howler Monkeys): Alouatta.
        • Subfamily Atelinae (Spider Monkeys): Ateles, Brachyteles, Lagothrix.
        • CATARRHINI The Old World Monkeys, ‘the hooked noses’. These generally have 32 teeth.
        • FAMILY PROPLIOPITHECIDAE+
        • Early Archaic Catarrhines. These seem to have been close to the common ancestors of the Cercopithecidae and the Apes.
        • 34-33MYA
        • Propliopithecus, Aegyptopithecus, Oligopithecus, Catopithecus.
        • FAMILY PLIOPITHECIDAE+
        • Later Archaic Catarrhines
        • Subfamily Dionysopithecinae: Platydontopithecus, Dionysopithecus.
        • Subfamily Pliopithecinae: Egarapithecus, Epipliopithecus, Pliopithecus.
        • FAMILY OLIGOPITHECIDAE+
        • Extinct Archaic Anthropoids. They appear to have been more ape-like than monkey-like. They exhibited fusion of the frontal bones and closure of the eye socket.
        • 36-34MYA
        • Proteopithecus, Catopithecus, Oligopithecus.
        • FAMILY PARAPITHECIDAE+
        • Extinct Egyptian Monkeys. These were monkey-like, but not like the existing Old World Monkeys. They seem to have emerged from the earliest radiation of monkeys and left no decendants.
        • 35-30MYA
        • Subfamily Parapithecinae: Qatratia, Parapithecus, Arsinoea, Serapia, Apidium.
        • Subfamily Oreopithecinae: Nyanzapithecus, Oreopithecus.
        • FAMILY CERCOPITHECIDAE
        • Old World Monkeys. They occur throughout warm regions of the Eastern Hemisphere except Australia and Madagascar. They have cheek pouches and have a diet of fruit, leaves, and small invertebrates. They seem to have diverged from the ape ancestors by adaptations to a foliverous (leaf-eating) diet.
        • Late Miocene to present
        • Subfamily Cercopithecinae (Old World Monkeys): Allenopithecus, Cercocebus, Cercopithecus, Chlorocebus, Ethyrocebus, Lophocebus, Macaca, Mandrillus, Miopithecus, Papio, Theropithecus.
        • Subfamily Colobinae (Colobus Monkeys, Leaf Monkeys): Colobus, Nasalis, Presbytis, Procolobus, Pygathrix, Semnopithecus, Trachypithecus.
        • Subfamily Victoriapithecinae+ (Early Cercopithecids): Prohylobates, Victoriapithecus.
        • THE APES (HOMINOIDEA))
        • FAMILY PROCONSULIDAE+
        • These ran on all four feet and had an ape-like foot. They had small molars and long canines.
        • Lower Miocene of Africa
        • Subfamily Proconsulinae: Proconsul.
        • Subfamily Afropithecinae: Heliopithecus, Nacholapithicus, Equatorius, Afropithecus.
        • Subfamily Nyanzapithecinae: Nyanzapithecus, Mabokopithecus, Rangwapithecus, Turkanapithecus.
        • FAMILY HYLOBATIDAE
        • The gibbons. Tree-dwellers of southeast Asia
        • Hylobates, Hoolock, Nomascus, Symphalangus.
        • FAMILY HOMINIDAE
        • The human-like apes. It has 4 subfamilies.
        • Subfamily Kenyapithecinae: The basal hominids. These seemed to be equally adapted to the tree or the ground.
        • Miocene
        • Kenyapithecus
        • Subfamily Ponginae: The orangutans and extinct relatives. Mainly adapted as tree-dwellers, but some very large forms clearly were ground dwellers.
        • Miocene to present
        • Pongo, Khorapithecus+, Silvapithecus+ (=Ramapithecus), Gryphopithecus+, Lufengpithecus+, Ankarapithecus+, Gigantopithecus+.
        • Subfamily Dryopithecinae+: The dryopithecines. These were tree-swinging apes, much like the gibbons. May be a group within the Ponginae.
        • Upper Miocene of Africa and Eurasia.
        • Dryopithecus, Oreopithecus, Graecopithecus
        • Subfamily Homininae: Humans, chimps, and gorillas. Chimpanzees and gorillas are poorly represented in the fossil record; however, humans have quite an elaborate record with at least 15 species.
        • Upper Miocene to present
        • Gorilla, Pan, Homo, Sahelanthropus+, Ardipithecus+, Orrorin+, Preanthropus+, Australopithecus+, Paranthropus+.
  • ORDER SCANDENTIA
  • Tree shrews. Deciduous forests of central and southeastern Asia. Small and very squirrel-like (but with 5 toes). They have a complete auditory bulla and complete zygomatic arches.
  • Eocene(?) Miocene to present
    • FAMILY TUPALIIDAE
    • Subfamily Ptilocercinae (Pen-Tailed Tree Shrew): Ptilocercus.
    • Subfamily Tupalinae (Tree Shrews): Anathana, Dendrogale, Tupaia.
  • ORDER DERMOPTERA
  • Flying Lemurs or Colugos. Arboreal herbivores of southeastern Asia to the Philippines. They have an expandable flap of skin that connects the shoulder to the forefeet, hindfeet, and tip of the tail. With the expanded membrane, they can glide up to 100m. They are about the size of a squirrel and feed by scraping leaves with their incisors from which they gather material with their long tongues.
  • Eocene (?) to present
    • FAMILY CYNOCEPHALIDAE (GALEOPITHECIDAE)
    • Cynocephalus, Dermotherium+
    • FAMILY PAROMOMYIDAE+
    • Subfamily Paromomyinae: Paromomys.
    • Subfamily Phenacolemurinae: Simpsonlemur, Elwynella, Ignacius, Arcius, Pulverflumen, Dillerlemur, Phenacolemur.
    • FAMILY PLAGIOMENIDAE+
    • Incertae Sedis: Eudaemonema, Elpidophorus.
    • Subfamily Plagioneminae: Planetetherium, Worlandia, Ellesmene, Plagiiomene.
    • Subfamily Ekgmowechashalinae: Ekgmowechashala, Tarkadectes, Tarka.
    • FAMILY MIXODECTIDAE+
    • Dracontolestes, Mixodectes.
  • GLIRES
  • ORDER UNNAMED
  • These may be basal rodents or show parallel specializations.
  • Upper Cretaceous to present
    • FAMILY ZALAMBDALESTIDAE
    • Alymlestes, Beleutinus, Kulbeckia, Barunlestes, Zalambdalestes.
  • ORDER RODENTIA (~2,000 species; 40% of all living mammals). They have deep-rooted incisors which grow continuously through their lives. The incisors are followed by a gap then a premolar and molars.
    • SUBORDER SCIUROMORPHA
      • FAMILY APLODONTIDAE
      • Mountain Beaver. Fossorial animals of the Pacific Northwest. They are heavy-set animals with short tails and long digits capable of grasping. The zygomatic plate is narrow and horizontal.
      • Miocene to present.
      • Aplotontia.
      • FAMILY SCIURIDAE
      • Squirrels. They occur on all continents except Antarctica, Australia, and southern South America. Arboreal to fossorial animals, they eat nuts and seeds, but supplement their diets with other things like fungi, small birds, sap, etc. The infraorbital foramen is not enlarged.
      • Subfamily Pteromyinae (Flying Squirrels): Aretes, Aeromys, Belomys, Biswamoyopterus, Eupetaurus, Glaucomys, Hylopetes, Iomys, Petaurillus, Petaurista, Petinomys, Pteromys, Pteromyscus, Trogopterus.
      • Subfamily Sciurinae (Chipmunks, Ground Squirrels, Marmots, and Tree Squirrels): Ammospermophilus, Atlantoxerus, Callosciurus, Cynomys, Dremomys, Epixerus, Exilisciurus, Funambulus, Funisciurus, Glyphotes, Heliosciurus, Hyosciurus, Lariscus, Marmota, Menetes, Microsciurus, Myosciurus, Nannosciurus, Paraxerus, Prosciurillus, Protoxerus, Ratufa, Rheithrosciurus, Rhinosciurus, Rubisciurus, Sciurillus, Sciurotamias, Sciurus, Spermophilopsis, Spermophilus, Sundasciurus, Syntheosciurus, Tamias, Tamiasciurus, Tamiops, Xerus.
      • FAMILY GLIRIDAE (MYOXIDAE)
      • Dormice and Hazel Mice. Mainly herbivorous, but do eat small invertebrates and other mice; found from northern Africa to Europe across to central Asia . They resemble chipmunks with short limbs and broad feet tipped by curved claws (4 foredigits and 5 hinddigits). They are myomorphous with the typical enlargement of the infraorbital foramen but weakly developed zygomatic plate.
      • Eocene to present.
      • Subfamily Graphiurinae (African Dormice): Graphiurus.
      • Subfamily Leithiinae (Forest and Garden Dormice): Dryomys, Eliomys, Myomimus, Selevinia.
      • Subfamily Myoxinae (Hazel Dormouse): Glirulus, Muscardinus, Myoxus.
    • SUBORDER CASTORIMORPHA
      • FAMILY CASTORIDAE
      • Beavers. Found throughout the northern temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. Semiaquatic herbivores (they feed on bark and leaves and fell small trees) with a coat of long outer fur and dense underfur. They build lodges of sticks and mud and their activities modify lakes and streams. They have a strongly-built skull that is flattened in profile; jaws are especially powerful. Their epiglottis lies above the soft palate and can be sealed off with the tongue; so, they can gnaw underwater without getting water in their lungs.
      • Oligocene to present
      • Castor, Castoroides+, Paleocastor+.
      • FAMILY GEOMYIDAE
      • Pocket Gophers. Fossorial animals of North and Central America. They have fur-lined cheek pouches (pockets). They are stout with short neck and powerful digging legs with feet (5 digits) that are broad tipped with strong claws. They have a short, almost hairless tail. Eyes and ears are small.
      • Early Miocene to present
      • Geomys, Orthogeomys, Pappogeomys, Thomomys, Zygogeomys.
      • FAMILY HETEROMYIDAE
      • Kangaroo Rats and Pocket Mice. Fossorial herbivorous (mainly seed eaters) animals of deserts and dry grasslands of North America to both wet and dry tropical forests of northern South America. These are adapted to leaping and hopping with very long hind legs (Kangaroo Rats are almost bipedal). They have a large fur-lined cheek pouch. The skull are very thin with a well-developed zygomatic plate and small infraorbital foramen.
      • Subfamily Dipodomyinae (Kangaroo Rats): Dipodomys, Microdipodops.
      • Subfamily Heteromyinae (Spiny Pocket Mice): Heteromys, Liomys.
      • Subfamily Perognathinae (Pocket Mice): Chaetodipus, Perognathus.
      • Oligocene to present
    • SUBORDER MYOMORPHA
      • SUPERFAMILY DIPODOIDEA
        • FAMILY DIPODIDAE
        • Birch Mice, Jumping Mice, and Jerboas. Jumping mice of the Northern Hemisphere (including northern Africa). The infraorbital foramen is enlarged (in an almost hystricomorphous situation) and they do not have a well-developed zygomatic plate. However, they do have a sciurognathous lower jaw. Some have verly elongate hind limbs for leaping.
        • Oligocene to present
        • Subfamily Allactaginae (Fat-Tailed Jerboas, Four and Five-Toed Jerboas): Allactaga, Allactodipus, Pygeretmus.
        • Subfamily Cardiocraniinae (Dwarf Jerboas): Cardiocranus, Salpingotus.
        • Subfamily Dipodinae (Three-Toed Jerboas and Desert Jerboas): Dipus, Eremodipus, Jaculus, Stylodipus.
        • Subfamily Euchoreutes (Long-Eared Jerboas): Euchoreutes.
        • Subfamily Parapodinae (Comb-Toed Jerboa): Paradipus.
        • Subfamily Sicistinae (Birch Mice): Sicista.
        • Subfamily Zapodinae (Jumping Mice): Eozapus, Napaeozapus, Zapus.
      • SUPERFAMILY MURIOIDEA
        • FAMILY PLATACANTHOMYIDAE
        • Malobar Spiny Dormice, Pigmy Dormice.
        • Platacanthomys, Typhlomys
        • FAMILY SPALACIDAE
        • Bamboo Rats, Blind Mole Rats, and African Mole Rats. Fossorial animals of eastern Europe, eastern Mediterranean to western China and down to Sumatra and Subsaharan Africa. They have extreme adaptations to a life underground including reduced eyes, pinnae, and tail.
        • Subfamily Myospalacinae (Zokors): Eospalax, Myospalax
        • Subfamily Rhizomyinae (Bamboo Rats and Mole Rats): Cannomys, Rhizomys
        • Subfamily Spalacinae (Blind Mole Rats): Spalax
        • Subfamily Tachyoryctinae (East African Mole rats): Tachyoryctes
        • FAMILY CALMOMYSCIDAE
        • Mouse-Like Hamsters.
        • Calomyscus
        • FAMILY NESOMYIDAE
        • African Pouched Rats, Delany’s Mice, African Climbing Mice, Fat Mice, Tree Mice, White-Tailed Mice, Malagasy Rats, and Rock Mice. Rodents of Subsaharan Africa and Madagascar. They occupy a large diversity of habitats (e.g. forests, grasslands, and wetlands).
        • Subfamily Cricetomyinae (African Pouched Rats): Beamys, Cricetomys, Saccostomus
        • Subfamily Delanymyinae (Delany’s Mouse): Delanymys.
        • Subfamily Dendromurinae (African Climbing Mice, Fat Mice, Tree Mice): Dendromus, Dendroprionomys, Malacothrix, Megadendromus, Prionomys, Steatomys.
        • Subfamily Mystromyinae (White-Tailed Mice): Mystromys.
        • Subfamily Nesomyinae (Malagasy Rats): Brachytarsomys, Brachyuromys, Eliurus, Gymnuromys, Hypogeomys, Macrotarsomys, Monticolomys, Nesomys, Voalvo.
        • Subfamily Petromysinae (Rock Mice): Petromyscus.
        • FAMILY CRICETIDAE
        • New World Rats, Mice, Voles, Hamsters. Rodents of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. This is one of the largest families of mammals. Rodents in this family occupy almost all types of habitats. Many are found in agricultural fields, gardens, yards, and homes. They can be found from beaches and wetlands to forests, grasslands and deserts.They occupy a large diversity of habitats (e.g. forests, grasslands, and wetlands).
        • Subfamily Arvicolinae (Lemmings and Voles): Alticola, Arborimus, Arvicola, Blanfordimys, Caryomys, Chionomys, Dicrostonyx, Dinaromys, Ellobius, Eolagurus, Eothenomys, Hyperacrius, Lagurus, Lasiopodomys, Lemmiscus, Lemmus, Microtus, Myodes, Myopus, Neodon, Neofiber, Ondatra, Phaiomys, Phenacomys, Proedromys, Prometheomys, Synaptomys, Volemys.
        • Subfamily Cricetinae (Hamsters): Allocricetulus, Cansumys, Cricetulus, Cricetus, Mesocricetus, Phodopus, Tscherskia.
        • Subfamily Lophiomyinae (Deer Mice and Wood Rats): Baiomys, Habromys, Hodomys, Isthmomys, Megadontomys, Nelsonia, Neotoma, Ochrotomys, Onychomys, Osgoodomys, Peromyscus, Podomys, Reithrodontomys, Scotinomys, Xenomys.
        • Subfamily Sigmodontinae (South American Rats and Mice): Abrawayomys, Abrothrix, Aepeomys, Akodon, Amphinectomys, Andalgalomys, Andinomys, Anotomys, Auliscomys, Bibimys, Blarinomys, Bolomys, Brucepattersonius, Calomys, Chelemys, Chibchanomys, Chilomys, Chinchillula, Chroeomys, Delomys, Deltamys, Eligmodontia, Euneomys, Galenomys, Geoxus, Graomys, Handleyomys, Holochilus, Ichthyomys, Irenomys, Juliomys, Juscelinomys, Kunsia, Lenoxus, Loxodontomys, Lundomys, Megalomys, Megaoryzomys, Melanomys, Microakodontomys, Microryzomys, Neacomys, Necromys, Nectomys, Neotomys, Nesoryzomys, Neusticomys, Noronhomys, Notiomys, Oecomys, Olicoryzomys, Oryzomys, Oxymycterus, Paralomys, Pearsonomys, Phaenomys, Phyllotis, Podoxymys, Pseudoryzomys, Punomys, Reithrodon, Rhagomys, Rheomys, Rhipidomys, Salinomys, Scapteromys, Scolomys, Sigmodon, Sigmodontomys, Tapecomys, Thalpomys, Thaptomys, Thomasomys, Wiedomys, Wilfredomys, Zygodontomys.
        • Subfamily Tylomyninae (Vesper rats and Climbing Rats): Nyctomys, Otonyctomys, Ototylomys, Tylomys.
        • FAMILY MURIDAE
        • Old World Rats, Mice, Gerbils, Whistling Rats. Rodents of the Eastern Hemisphere. This is the largest mammalian family and the murids occupy almost every type of terrestrial habitat (wet to dry; desert to forest; sea level to mountains).
        • Subfamily Deomyinae (Spiny Mice, Forest Mice): Acomys, Deomys, Lophuromys, Uranomys.
        • Subfamily Gerbillinae (Gerbils, Jirds): Ammodillus, Brachiones, Desmodilliscus, Desmodillus, Dipodillus, Gerbilliscus, Gerbillurus, Gerbillus, Meriones, Microdilus, Pachyuromys, Psammomys, Rhombomys, Sekeetamys, Tatera, Taterillus.
        • Subfamily Leimacomyinae (Groove-Toothed Forest Mice): Leimacomys.
        • Subfamily Murinae (Old World Mice and Rats): Abditomys, Abeomelomys, Aethomys, Anisomys, Anonomomys, Apodemus, Apomys, Archboldomys, Arvicanthis, Bandicota, Batomys, Berylmys, Bullimus, Bunomys, Carpomys, Celaenomys, Chiromyscus, Chiropodomys, Chiruromys, Chrotomys, Coccymys, Colomys, Conilurus, Corphomys, Crateromys, Cremnomys, Crossomys, Crunomys, Dacnomys, Dasymys, Dephomys, Desmomys, Diomys, Diplothrix, Echiothrix, Eropeplus, Golunda, Grammomys, Hadromys, Haeromys, Hapalomys, Heimyscus, Hybomys, Hydromys, Hylomyscus, Hyomys, Kadarsanomys, Komodomys, Lamottemys, Leggadina, Lemniscomys, Lenomys, Leopoldamys, Leporillus, Leptomys, Limnomys, Lorentzimys, Macruromys, Madromys, Malacomys, Mallomys, Malpaisomys, Mammelomys, Margaretomys, Mastacomys, Maxomys, Mayermys, Melasmothrix, Melomys, Mesembryomys, Micaelamys, Microhydromys, Micromys, Millardia, Muriculus, Mus, Mylomys, Myomyscus, Neohydromys, Nesokia, Nesoromys, Nilopagamys, Niviventer, Notomys, Oenomys, Palawanomys, Papagomys, Parahydromys, Paraleptomys, Paramelomys, Parauromys, Paralamys, Pelomys, Phloeomys, Pithecheirops, Pogonomelomys, Pogonomys, Praomys, Protochromys, Rattus, Rhabdomys, Rhagamys, Rhynchomys, Solomys, Sommeromys, Spelaeomys, Srilankamys, Stenocephalomys, Stenomys, Stochomys, Sundamys, Taeromys, Tarsomys, Tateomys, Thallomys, Thamnomys, Tokudaia, Tryphomys, Uromys, Vandeleuria, Vernaya, Xenuromys, Zelotomys, Zyzomys.
        • Subfamily Otomyinae (Vlei Rats and Whistling Rats): Myotomys, Otomys, Parotomys.
    • SUBORDER ANOMALUROMORPHA
      • FAMILY ANOMALURIDAE
      • Scaly-Tailed Squirrels. Arboreal herbivores of the forests of central Africa . These animals resemble flying squirrels; and almost all have gliding membranes. The underside of the tail has two rows of scales.
      • Lower Miocene to present. (Africa)
      • Subfamily Anomaluridae (Scaly-Tailed Flying Squirrels): Anomalurus.
      • Subfamily Zenkerellinae (Pygmy Scaly-Tailed Squirrel): Idiurus, Zenkerella.
      • FAMILY PEDETIDAE
      • Springhares (Springhaas). A rabbit or kangaroo-like rodent of southern Africa . They hop and also move in a quadrupedal gait. The pinnae of the ears are sparsely-haired and they have large eyes. The forefeet have 5 digits and the hindfeet have 4 digits. The animals are good diggers and are somewhat fossorial. Nocturnal, feeding mainly on bulbs and grasses.
      • Pedetes.
    • SUBORDER HYSTRICOMORPHA
      • INFRAORDER CTENOCYCLOMORPHI
        • FAMILY CTENODACTYLIDAE
        • Gundis. Diurnal herbivores of northern Africa . They look like guinea pigs with distinctive adhesive pads on their feet. The hair is soft and silky, and hair scales are petaloid.
        • Ctenodactylus, Felovia, Massoutiera, Pectinator.
      • INFRAORDER HYSTRICOGNATHI
      • These animals had a dentary with a broad flange for the insertion of jaw muscles. Porcupines, guinea pigs, capybaras, chinchillas. The infraorbital formaen is enlarged to allow for the passage of an enlarged medial massiter.
      • Oligocene to present
        • FAMILY ABROCOMIDAE
        • Chinchilla Rats. Animals of the Andes from southern Peru to northern Chile. They are rat-like animals with a pointed muzzle, round ears, and large eyes. They had the typical rodent digit plan (4 on the forefeet and 5 on the hindfeet), but they do have long stiff hairs that project beyond the digits. Much of their biology is poorly known.
        • Abrocoma.
        • FAMILY AGOUTIDAE
        • Pacas. Animals of tropical forests in Central and South America. These animals are very large (up to 12kg). They have stout bodies with long legs and no tails. The forefeet have 4 toes and three toes on the hindfeet. The claws are almost hoof-like. Their skulls are massive with large zygomatic arches (the jugal does not connect with the lacrimal). They are terrestrial and good diggers.
        • Agouti.
        • FAMILY BATHYERGIDAE
        • Blesmoles and Mole Rats. Fossorial animals in Africa, south of the Sahara Desert. Their legs are short and strong with small ears and eyes. Their incisors are massive and procumbent and lack the yellow pigment characteristic of rodents. The animals are highly fossorial and herbivores. They range from solitary to highly social animals. Some are naked, but most have a thick fur.
        • Oligocene to present.
        • Bathyergus, Cryptomys, Georychus, Heliophobius, Heterocephalus.
        • FAMILY CAVIIDAE
        • Cavies. These diurnal animals occur over most of South America. They occur in two major groups the cavies with compact bodies (like Guinea Pigs) and almost rabbit-like (Patagonian Hares). They have rootless incisors, and flat crowns. They are herbivores with many areas of specialization (e.g. leaves, fruits, grasses). They do not hibernate.
        • Middle Miocene to present.
        • Subfamily Caviinae (Cavies): Cavia, Galea, Kerodon, Microcavia.
        • Subfamily Dolichotinae (Maras): Dolichotis.
        • FAMILY CHINCHILLIDAE
        • Chinchillas and Viscachas. Herbivores of the central and southern Andes, Patagonia, and Southern South America. Chinchillas have a fine fur with compact bodies and pronounced tails. The hind legs are longer than the front legs. Their paws have fleshy pads. The forefeet have 4 toes that are highly mobile and can be used for grasping. They jump bipedally but generally move about quaripedally. They are strongly hystricomorphous and have delicate incisors. All are colonial and have large behavioral repertoires.
        • Chinchilla, Lagidium, Lagostomus.
        • FAMILY CTENOMYIDAE
        • Tuco-Tucos. Fossorial animals of Central and South America. Bodies are heavily-built with powerful legs. Their skulls are typical of fossorial rodents in that they are massive, flattened, and broad. They have a very enlarged infraorbital foramen. Incisors are wide and powerful. Theu feed on roots, stems, and grasses.
        • Lower Pliocene to the present.
        • Ctenomys
        • FAMILY DASYPROCTIDAE
        • Acuchis and Agoutis. Animals of the New World tropics. They have slender bodies, relatively large heads, long legs, and short tails. The hindlegs are longer than front legs and the feet are tipped with sharp, hoof-like claws. Fur is long and coarse with a distinctive sheen. Normally, they are solitary. They are good runners.
        • Oligocene to present.
        • Dasyprocta, Myoprocta.
        • FAMILY DINOMYIDAE
        • Pacarana. An animal of the foothills and slopes of the Andes in northern South America. They have a broad, massive head and short legs with a plantigrade stance. The vibrissae are very long. It is hystricomorphous with heavy zygomatic arches. The incisors are powerful. Herbivores (eating stems, leaves, and fruits). Little is known of them because they are rare. Josephhoartigasia lived about 2-4 million years ago in the area of Uruguay and weighed nearly 1000kg making it the largest known rodent that has ever lived (Rinderknecht and Blanco 2008).
        • Oligocene to the present
        • Dinomys, Josephoartigasia+.
        • FAMILY ECHIMYIDAE
        • Spiny Rats. Rat-like animals of tropical Central and South America. They range from being completely arboreal to fossorial. Forefeet with 4 digits, the hindfeet with 5 digits. They have spiny hairs on their rumps and backs.
        • Subfamily Chaetomyinae (Bristle-Spined Rats): Chaetomys.
        • Subfamily Dactylomyinae (Bamboo Rats): Dactylomys, Kannabateomys, Olallamys.
        • Subfamily Echimyinae (Spiny Rats): Diplomys, Echimys, Isothrix, Makalata.
        • Subfamily Emysopinae (Primitive Spiny Rats): Carterodon, Clyomys, Euryzygomatomys, Hoplomys, Lonchothrix, Mesomys, Proechimys, Thrichomys.
        • Subfamily Heteropsomyinae (West Indian Spiny Rats): Boromys, Brotomys, Heteropsomys, Puertoricomys.
        • FAMILY ERETHIZONTIDAE
        • New World Porcupines. These animals occur from the Arctic coast of North America through Central America to northern Argentina. All have hairs modified into spines with barbs, zygomatic arches that are large but the jugal and lacrimal do not meet, the 2nd and 3rd cervical vertebrae are fused, weak eyesight, and good sense of smell. They are nocturnal and generally solitary. Some have prehensile tails.
        • Oligocene to present (in South America); Pliocene to present in North America.
        • Coendou, Echinoprocta, Erithizon, Sphiggurus.
        • FAMILY HEPTAXODONTIDAE+
        • Giant Hutias. Animals of the Greater Antilles, Anguilla, St. Martins. These were large rodents, one was the size of a black bear. They resembled nutrias with a large rostrum.
        • Pleistocene to recent (now extinct)
        • Subfamily Clidomyinae (Giant Jamaican Hutias): Clidomys.
        • Subfamily Heptaxodontinae (Antillean Giant Hutia): Amblyrhiza, Elasmodontomys, Quemisia.
        • FAMILY HYDROCHAERIDAE
        • Capybaras. These large rodentsare found in the tropics of South America. They have stout bodies with short and deep heads. Their ears and eyes are small, and their nostrils sit high on the rostrum. Their legs are not particularly long, but the forelegs are shorter than the hind legs; also, they have 4 digits on their front legs and 3 on their hind legs. Capybaras are semi-aquatic animals and feed on aquatic plants.
        • Hydrochaeris.
        • FAMILY HYSTRICHIDAE
        • Old World Porcupines. These terrestrial animals of Africa and Asia are characterized by having quills without barbs. Their bodies are stout and their legs are short terminating in feet with plantigrade stance (5 digits each foot). They are good diggers and construct burrows. They eat many kinds of plants and carrion.
        • Miocene to the present.
        • Atherurus, Hystrix, Trichys.
        • FAMILY MYOCASTORIDAE
        • Coypus and Nutria. Semi-aquatic animals of Central and South America, nutrias have become distributed over much of the world, where they are a destructive exotic. They are robust for rodents and have numerous adaptations to an aquatic life: webbed hind feet (5 digits and 4 on the forefeet), small ears, small eyes, the tail is long, almost naked and round. They have a thick underfur. The skull is quite robust with heavy zygomatic arches (jugal and lacrimal do not touch). They are herbivores and feed on land and in the water and good diggers, making burros in the banks of streams or lakes. They are social and usually live in groups of 10-15.
        • Myocastor.
        • FAMILY OCTODONTIDAE
        • Degus, Rock Rats, and Viscacha Rats. Fossorial to arborial animals from the coast to 3500m in Peru , Bolivia , Chile , and Argentina . The animals are small and rat-like with an obvious tuft of hair toward the end of the tail. The forefeet have 4 digits; the hindfeet have 5 digits. The zygomatic arch is simple, and the jugal and lacrimal do not touch. In general, they are good diggers; most are social and live in colonies.
        • Aconaemys, Octodon, Octodontomys, Octomys, Spalacopus, Tympanoctomys.
        • FAMILY PETROMURIDAE
        • Dassie Rat. Animals of arid rocky areas of southwestern Africa . They look like squirrels (rather than rats) because of their bushy tails. They have no underfur. The zygomatic arches are strong but the lacrimal and jugal do not touch. The cheekteeth do not continue to grow. They are social animals and active during the day. They live in crevaces among rocks and have an amazing ability to flatten out. They live in small social groups.
        • Petromus.
        • FAMILY THRYONOMYIDAE
        • Cane Rats. Animals of marshes south of the Sahara. They are rat-like animals with small eyes and small ears. The tail is shorter than the body. Both limbs terminate with three digits, which have strong claws used for digging. The zygomatic arch is robust. The cheekteeth are not evergrowing. They can be serious agricultural pests. They make burrows and mostly solitary.
        • Thryonomys.
  • ORDER LAGOMORPHA
    • Rabbits, hares, and pikas. Like the rodents, they have incisors that are deep rooted and grow continuously. However, they have a second small pair of incisors in the upper jaw.
    • FAMILY LEPORIDAE
    • Rabbits and hares. Globally distributed animals of grasslands, forests, and tundra. Usually ears are quite long (much longer than wide). The hindlimbs are long and longer than the forelimbs. The tail is quite short. Skulls are distinctive and arched with a broad zygomatic arch. They may be solitary or live in small groups. Females are larger than males. They can become agricultural pests.
    • Middle Eocene to present
    • Brachylagus,Bunolagus, Caprolagus, Lepus, Nesolagus, Oryctolagus, Pentalagus, Poelagus, Pronolagus, Romerolagus, Sylvilagus, Lagus?, Paleolagus+.
    • FAMILY OCHOTONIDAE
    • Pikas. These are animals of open plains and steppes of western North America and central and northern Asia . They are compact animals with a very short tail and the animals have a long, fine fur. The skull is flattened with a short rostrum. The zygomatic arch is delicate. The first incisors appear like those of rodents, but they are surrounded by enamel.
    • Lower Oligocene to the present
    • Ochotona, Prolagus.